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Education  Dept 


FIRST    LESSONS    WITH    PLANTS 


FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

BEING    AN     ABRIDGEMENT     OF 

"LESSONS    WITH    PLANTS: 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  SEEING  AND  INTERPRETING  SOME  OP 
THE  COMMON   FORMS  OP  VEGETATION'' 


BY 

L.    H.    BAILEY 


With  delineations  from  nature  by 

W.  S.  HOLDSWORTH 

Assistant  Professor  of  Drawing  in  the  Agricultural 
College  of  Michigan 


TH1MD   EDITION 


Jpeto  gotfc 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON  :    MACMILLAN   &   CO.,  LTD. 

1906 

All  rights  reserved 


.     ^-'-:-     ^t-rf  . 

*&<*  xrsf 


COPYRIGHT,  1898 
BY    L.    H.    BAILEY 


Set  up  and  eleetrotyped  January,  1898 
Reprinted  September,  1901,  June.  1906 


J.  HORACE  MC-FARLAND  COMPANY 

IlARRISBURG    •    PENNSYLVANIA 


PREFACE 

These  simple  lessons  are  designed  to  awaken  an 
interest  in  plants  and  in  nature  rather  than  to  teach 
botany.  They  are  suggestions  to  the  teacher  who 
desires  to  introduce  nature -study  into  the  school.  A 
somewhat  full  discussion  of  the  author's  opinions  re- 
specting the  methods  of  presenting  nature- study  by 
means  of  plant-subjects,  is  given  in  the  book  of  which 
this  is  an  abridgement.  It  is  desired  to  emphasize  the 
importance  of  making  nature-study  objects  the  subjects 
of  writing  and  drawing  in  schools  in  which  compo- 
sition and  drawing  are  taught.  The  first  essential  to 
the  writing  of  compositions  is  that  the  pupil  have 
something  to  say  which  is  drawn  from  experience  and 
observation.  Live  and  emphatic  ideas  are  more  im- 
portant than  drill  in  modes  of  expression.  Fill  the 
pupil  with  his  subject,  and  writing  comes  easy,  particu- 
larly if  he  is  taught  that  good  English  demands  that 
he  go  no  farther  with  his  subject  than  to  express 
what  he  himself  feels.  The  writing  and  the  drawing 
should  not  be  intended,  primarily,  as  examinations  in 
the  nature-study,  but  as  regular  exercises  in  the  cus- 
tomary work  of  composition  and  drawing. 

(v) 

675234 


VI  PREFA CE 

Teachers  sometimes  like  to  take  up  the  plant  as  an 
entirety,  before  discussing  its  parts.  Familiar  plants 
may  be  brought  before  the  class,  and  the  different 
parts  pointed  out, — as  stems,  roots,  leaves,  flowers.  This 
is  desirable  with  children,  but  its  usefulness  is  com- 
monly not  great,  except  as  a  brief  introduction  to  more 
serious  observation.  The  pupil  should  be  taught  to  see 
accurately  and  in  detail ;  and  it  is  always  well  to  lead 
him  to  make  suggestions  as  to  the  meaning  and  uses 
of  the  features  which  he  has  seen. 

In  approaching  the  subject  of  nature -study,  we 
must  first  ask  why  we  desire  to  teach  natural  history 
subjects  in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools.  There 
can  be  but  two  answers:  we  teach  either  for  the  sake 
of  imparting  the  subject  itself,  or  for  the  sake  of  the 
pupil.  When  we  have  the  pupil  chiefly  in  mind, 
we  broaden  his  sympathies,  multiply  his  points  of  con- 
tact with  the  world,  quicken  his  imagination,  and 
thereby  deepen  his  life ;  a  graded  and  systematic 
body  of  facts  is  of  secondary  importance.  In  other 
words,  when  the  teacher  thinks  chiefly  of  his  sub- 
ject, he  teaches  a  science ;  when  he  thinks  chiefly 
of  his  pupil,  he  teaches  nature -study.  The  child 
loves  nature  ;  but  when  he  becomes  a  youth,  and  has 
passed  the  intermediate  years  in  school,  the  nature - 
instinct  is  generally  obscured  and  sometimes  obliterated. 
The  perfunctory  teaching  of  science  may  be  a  respon- 
sible factor  in  this  result.  There  seem  to  be  four 


PREFACE  VU 

chief    requisites    in    nature -study    teaching,    if     the    pupil 
is   to   catch    inspiration  from  it : 

1.  The   subject    itself   must    interest    the   pupil.      This 
means    that    the    instruction    begin    with    the    commonest 
things,    with    those    which    are    actually    a    part    of    the 

• 

pupil's   life. 

2.  The    pupil    must   feel    that    the    work    is    his,    and 
that   he   is   the  investigator. 

3.  Little  should  be  attempted   at  a  time.      One  thought 
or    one    suggestion    may    be    enough    for    one    day.      The 
suggestion   that   insects  have   six  legs   is  sufficient  for  one 
lesson.     We    obscure    the    importance    of    common    things 
by  cramming    the   mind   with    facts.       When    the   pupil    is 
taught    to    take   systematic   notes    upon   what    the    teacher 
says,  it   is   doubtful   if   the   lesson    is  worth   the   while,  as 
nature -study.     The   pupil   cannot    be   pushed    into   sympa- 
thy  with   nature. 

4.  The    less    rigid    the    system    of     teaching    and    the 
fewer    the    set    tasks,    the    more    spontaneous    and,    there- 
fore,   the    better,    is    the    result.      A    codified     system     of 
examinations  will   choke  the   life   out  of   nature -study. 

In  this  nature -study,  it  would  seem  to  be  unwise  to 
rigidly  grade  the  work,  particularly  as  it  is  presented  in  a 
text -book.  The  teacher  can  grade  or  adapt  the  mat- 
ter,— he  can  fill  out  the  frame-work, — as  seems  best  for 
his  pupils  and  conditions.  The  work  must  be  consecu- 
tive, however,  if  it  is  to  find  a  definite  place  in  schools. 
That  is,  some  general  plan  or  scheme  must  be  laid  out ; 


PREFACE 


and  in  this  direction  it  is  hoped  that  this  book  of 
suggestions  may  be  helpful.  The  first  object  of  the  book 
is  to  suggest  methods,  not  to  present  facts.  The  liberal 
use  of  pictures  in  the  book  will  suggest  to  the  teacher 
the  a  importance  of  having  an  abundance  of  illustrative 
material  for  the  exercises,  letting  the  pupils  see  the 
things  themselves,  as  far  as  practicable,  no  matter  how 
common  or  familiar  they  may  be  ;  and  it  is  an  advan- 
tage to  have  the  pupils  collect  the  specimens.  The 
pupil's  living  contact  with  common  things  will  strengthen 
the  bond  between  the  school  and  the  home. 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 

HORTICULTURAL  DKPARTMENT,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y.,  December  13,  1897. 


CONTENTS 


I.     TWIGS    AND    BUDS 

OBSERVATION  PAGE 

I.     The   bud   and   the   branch  . 1 

Q.     The   leaf-bud  and   the   fruit-bud 5 

III.  The  struggle    for  existence  in  a  tree  top 

IV.  A  bit  of   history 14 

V.     The  opening  of  the  buds 19 

II.     LEAVES 

VI.     What  is  a  leaf  ? 24 

VII.     The  parts  of   leaves 26 

VIII.     The  compound  leaf 

IX.     The   forms  of   leaves 42 

III.     FLOWEKS 

X.     What  is  a   flower  I 49 

XI.     What  is  a   flower  ?   concluded 53 

XII.     The  parts  of   the  pistil -57 

XIII.  The   stamens 63 

XIV.  The  dandelion 68 

XV.     Cross -fertilization 74 

Ox) 


X  CONTENTS 

IV.     PROPAGATION    AND    HABITS 

OBSERVATION  PAGE 

XVI.     How   a    squash  plant  gets  out  of  the  seed 79 

XVII.     Germination  of    beans 86 

XVIII.     What  is  a  seed  ? 90 

XIX.     Bulbs,   bulblets  and   buds 95 

XX.     How  some  plants  get  up   in  the  world 100 

XXI.     Various  movements  of   plants 106 

V.     COLLECTING 
XXII,     The  preserving  of   plants 110 


FIRST    LESSONS    WITH    PLANTS 

•  -»   *• 

*  '   '  \ 

I.    TWIGS   AND  .BUD& 

I.      THE    BUD    AND    THE    BRANCH 

1.  A    twig    cut    from    an    apple     tree    in    early 
spring   is   shown   in   Fig.    1.      The   most    hasty    ob- 
servation shows    that   it   has  various   parts   or  mem- 
bers.     It   seems   to^be   divided  at  the  point  /  into 
two   parts.      It   is    evident   that   the   portion   from  / 
to    h   grew   last   year,    and   that    the    portion    below 
f  grew   two    years    ago.      The    buds    upon    the    two 
parts    are   very   unlike     and    these    differences   chal- 
lenge investigation. 

2.  In   order   to   understand    this    seemingly    life- 
less   twig,     it    will    be    necessary    to    see    it    as   it 
looked    late    last    summer     (and    this     condition    is 
shown    hi    Fig.    2).      The   portion    from  f   to    h9— 
which    has   just    completed    its   growth, — is    seen   to 
have   only   one   leaf   in    a   place.     In    every    axil   (or 
angle    which     the    leaf    makes    when    it    joins    the 
shoot)    is    a    bud.       The    leaf    starts    first,    and    as 
the   season   advances    the    bud     forms    in    its    axil. 

(i) 


FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


FIG.  1. 
A.n  apple  twig. 


FIG.  2. 
Same  twig  before  leaves  fell. 


When      the       leaves 
have    fallen,    at    the 
approach    of    winter, 
the   buds   remain,   as 
seen      in      Fig.      1. 
Every    bud    on     the 
last  year's  growth  of 
a  winter  twig,  there- 
fore, marks    the   po- 
sition     occupied 
by   a  leaf   when 
the     shoot     was 
growing. 

3.    The   por- 
tion   below  /,  in 
Fig.  2,   shows   a 
wholly    different 
arrangement. 
The   leaves   are   two    or 
more  together  (a  a  a  a), 
and     there     are      buds 
without      leaves       (b  1) 
ft  &).       A      year      ago 
this       portion       looked 
like   the    present    shoot 
from  /  to  Jij — that  is, 
the  leaves  were  single, 
with     a     bud     in     the 


THE    BUD  AND    THE  BRANCH  3 

axil  of  each.  It  is  now  seen  that  some  of 
these  bud-like  parts  are  longer  than  others, 
and  that  the  longest  ones  are  those  which  have 
leaves.  It  must  be  because  of  the  leaves  that 
they  have  increased  in  length.  The  body  c  has 
lost  its  leaves  through  some  accident,  and  its 
growth  has  ceased.  In  other  words,  the  parts  at 
a  a  a  a  are  like  the  shoot  /  ft,-  except  that  they 
are  shorter,  and  they  are  of  the  same  age.  One 
grows  from  the  end  or  terminal  bud  of  the  main 
branch,  and  the  others  from  the  side  or  lateral 
buds.  Parts  or  bodies  which  bear  leaves  are, 
therefore,  branches. 

4.  The    buds     at    b  b  b  b    have    no     leaves,    and 
they   remain   the    same    size   that   they   were    a   year 
ago.      They    are    dormant.      The    only    way    for    a 
mature   bud   to    grow   is    by   making    leaves   for   it- 
self,   for    a   leaf    will    never    stand    below   it    again. 
The    twig,   therefore,   has    buds   of   two   ages, — those 
at   b  b  b  b   are    two    seasons    old,   and   those   on   the 
tips    of    all    the    branches    (a  a  a  a,  h) ,    and    hi   the 
axil  of   every  leaf,    are   one   season  old.     It   is   only 
the    terminal    buds   which    are    not    axillary.      Buds 
are    buds    only   so    long    as    they    remain    dormant. 
When   the   bud    begins   to   grow    and    to    put    forth 
leaves,    it    gives    rise   to   a    branch,    which,    in    its 
turn,    bears    buds. 

5.  It   will   now   be  interesting  to  determine    why 


4  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

certain  buds  gave  rise  to  branches  and  why  others 
remained  dormant.  The  strongest  shoot  or  branch 
of  the  year  is  the  terminal  one  (fh).  The  next 
in  strength  is  the  uppermost  lateral  one,  and  the 
weakest  shoot  is  at  the  base  of  the  twig.  The 
dormant  buds  are  on  the  under  side  (for  the 
twig  grew  in  a  horizontal  position).  All  this  sug- 
gests that  those  buds  grew  which  had  the  best 
chance, —  the  most  sunlight  and  room.  There  were 
too  many  buds  for  the  space,  and  in  the  struggle 
for  existence  those  which  had  the  best  oppor- 
tunities made  the  largest  growths.  This  struggle 
for  existence  began  a  year  ago,  however,  when 
the  buds  upon  the  shoot  below  /  were  forming  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves,  for  the  buds  near  the  tip 
of  the  shoot  grew  larger  and  stronger  than  those 
near  its  base.  The  growth  of  one  year,  therefore, 
is  very  largely  determined  by  the  conditions  under 
which  the  buds  were  formed  the  previous  year. 

SUGGESTIONS. — At  whatever  time  of  year  the  pupil  takes  up  the 
study  of  branches,  he  should  look  for  three  things:  the  ages  of  the 
various  parts,  the  relative  positions  of  the  buds  and  leaves,  the 
different  sizes  of  similar,  or  comparable  buds.  If  it  is  late  in 
spring  or  early  in  summer  he  should  watch  the  development  of 
the  buds  in  the  axils,  and  he  should  determine  (as  inferred  in 
5)  if  the  strength  or  size  of  the  bud  is  in  any  way  related  to 
the  size  and  vigor  of  the  subtending  (or  supporting)  leaf.  Upon 
leafless  twigs,  the  sizes  of  buds  should  also  be  noted,  and  the  sizes 
of  the  former  leaves  may  be  inferred  from  the  size  of  the  leaf- 
scar  (below  the  bud).  The  pupil  should  keep  in  mind  the  fact 


THE  LEAF -BUD  AND   THE  FRUIT-BUD  5 

of     the    struggle    for     food    and    light,     and     its     effects    upon    the 
developing   buds. 


II.   THE  LEAF-BUD  AND  THE  FRUIT-BUD 

6.  Another   apple   branch    is    shown    in    Fig.    3. 
It   seems   to    have    no    slender    last    year's    growth, 
as    Figs.  1    and   2   have    at  /  h.     It   therefore  needs 
special    attention.      It   is    first    seen   that   the    "ring" 
marking  the  termination  of  a  year's  growth  is  at  a. 
There  are    dormant   buds   at    b  b.      The    twig    above 
a   must    be   more   than   one    year   old,   however,  be- 
cause    it    bears    short    lateral    branches    at   e  e.      If 
these     branchlets     are     themselves    a    year     old     (as 
they  appear  to  be),  then  the  portion  fg  must  be  a 
similar   branch,  and    the   twig    itself    (af)    must    be 
two   years    old.      The    ring   marking   the   termination 
of   the  growth  of  year  before  last  is  therefore   at  /. 
In   other   words,    a    twig   is    generally    a   year   older 
than   its    oldest   branches. 

7.  The    buds    c  c   are    larger    than    the    dormant 
buds     (66).      That    is,    they   have    grown;      and    if 
they   have    grown,    they    are     really    branches,    and 
leaves    were    borne    upon    their    little    axes    in    the 
season   just   past.      The   branchlets   d  d  d  are  larger 
(possibly    because    the     accompanying     leaves    were 
more    exposed    to    light)    and    e  e    and    g    are    still 
larger.       For     some     reason     the     growth     of     this 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

twig  was  checked  last  year,  and  all  the 
branches  remained  short.  We  find,  in 
other  words,  that  there  is  no  necessary 
length  to  which  a  branch  shall  grow,  but 
that  its  length  is  dependent  upon  local  or 
seasonal  conditions. 

8.  There    are    other    and    more     impor- 
tant   differences    in    this    shoot.     The    buds 
terminating   the   branches   (e  e  g)   are    larger 
and     less     pointed     than     the     others     are. 
If    they    were    to    be    watched     as    growth 
begins    in     the     spring,    it    would     be    seen 
that    they   give    rise     to    both    flowers    and 
leaves,   while    the    others    give    only  leaves. 
In    other   words,    there    are    two     kinds    of 
buds,  fruit-buds  and  leaf -buds  ;    and  check- 
ing  the    growth    induces    fruitfulness. 

9.  If     the    buds    on    the    ends    of     the 
branchlets    e  e  g    produce    flowers,   the    twig 
cannot    increase    in    length ;     for    an    apple 
is     invariably    borne     on     the     end     of     a 
branch,     and     therefore     no     terminal     bud 
can    form    there.      If    growth    takes    place 
upon     the     twig    next    year,     therefore,     it 
must     arise     from     one    of      the    lower    or 
leaf -buds.       The    buds    upon    the    branch- 
lets    d  d  d  will    stand    the    best    chance    of 

FIG.  3.     continuing    the    growth    of     the     twig,   for 

Formation  of 
fruit-buds. 


THE   LEAF-BUD  AND    THE  FRUIT-BUD  7 

they  are  largest  and  strongest,  and  are  most  ex- 
posed to  sunlight.  These  failing,  the  opportunity 
will  fall  to  one  or  both  of  c  c ;  and  these  fail- 
ing, the  long- waiting  dormant  buds  may  find  their 
chance  to  grow.  In  other  words,  there  are  more 
buds  upon  any  twig  than  are  needed,  but  there 
is,  thereby,  a  provision  against  emergencies. 

SUGGESTIONS.— The  pupil  should  give  himself  some  practice  in 
determining  or  locating  the  rings  marking  the  annual  lengths  of 
growth.  A  good  way  to  do  this  is  to  choose  some  tree  of  known 
age  (as  a  fruit  tree  or  shade  tree  which  has  been  planted  but  a 
few  years),  and  endeavor  to  account  for  all  the  years'  growths. 
He  should  also  endeavor  to  find  out  how  long  the  dormant  buds  may 
live  upon  any  tree.  He  should  attempt  to  determine  if  it  is  true 
that  a  moderate  growth  (so  long  as  the  tree  remains  healthy) 
tends  to  make  the  tree  bear.  Those  persons  who  have  access  to 
vineyards  should  determine  whether  the  most  prolific  canes  are  those 
of  medium  size  and  which  do  not  run  off  to  great  lengths  on  the 
wires.  Examine  orchards  for  this  purpose.  Many  pupils  have 
heard  that  driving  nails  into  trees  tends  to  make  them  bear,  and 
the  result  may  have  been  attributed  to  some  influence  which  the 
iron  is  assumed  to  exert  upon  the  plant  ;  but  if  it  is  true 
that  such  practice  induces  fruitfulness,  the  pupil  may  be  able 
to  suggest  an  explanation  of  it.  Let  the  pupil  also  determine 
whether  dormant  buds  ever  grow  when  the  branch  is  injured 
above  them. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  foregoing  observations,  that  the  twig  in 
Fig.  3  cannot  continue  its  growth  in  a  straight  or  continuous  line. 
Its  terminal  bud  is  to  bear  flowers,  not  to  make  a  prolonged  growth. 
The  pupil  should  examine  apple  trees,  or  other  plants,  in  which  there 
are,  occasionally  or  habitually,  terminal  blossom  buds,  and  see  how 
the  plant  increases  in  height.  Perhaps  he  will  notice  that  there  is  a 
tendency  for  the  branches  to  fork.  Let  him  see  if  the  common  red 
elder  and  the  lilac  make  single  or  double  terminal  buds  ;  and  if  the 
latter,  does  that  fact  explain  the  forking  and  zigzag  growth  cf  llies»e 
bushes  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  forking  growth  of  the  sumac  ? 


s 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


Some  trees  (as   pines  and  spruces)  continue  to  grow  from  the  terminal 
bud,  but  most  plants  soon  lose  the  terminal  bud. 


III.      THE    STRUGGLE    FOR    EXISTENCE    IN    A 
TREE    TOP 

10.  We  have  seen,  in  all  the  foregoing  exam- 
ples, that  every  twig  bears  more  buds  than  can 
hope  to  find  a  chance  to  grow.  Fig.  4  is  an 


FIG.  4. 
The    suppression   of   interior   buds. 


oak  branch.  It  is  seen  that  all  the  leaves  are 
borne  upon  the  very  tips  of  the  branches.  That 
is,  the  interior  of  the  space  is  poorly  supplied  with 
foliage.  If  the  leaves  are  all  borne  at  the  ends 


STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE  Itf  A    TREE  TOP  9 

of  the  branches,  then  the  branches  must  all  arise 
from  the  ends  the  following  year,  for  we  have 
already  found  (2)  that  branches  normally  start  only 


FIG.  5. 
The   lengthening  leaf-stalks  on   a  horizontal   shoot  of   Norway  maple. 

from  leaf  axils.  The  persisting  branches,  therefore, 
may  mark  the  general  lengths  of  the  previous  an- 
nual growths. 

11.  Following  the  branches  back  we  notice 
that  there  are  regular  blank  spaces  and  regular 
points  of  branching.  Every  space  between  the 
branches  is  a  year's  growth,  but  these  spaces 
still  show  the  buds  which  failed  to  grow.  Even 
on  the  oldest  part  of  the  branch,  the  rough  eleva- 


10 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


tions  where  the  buds  were  are  still  prominent ;  and 
these  scars  may  often  be  found  on  branches  many 
years  old.  The  conclusion  is  that  the  method  of 
branching  of  a  tree  depends  more  upon  the  posi- 
tion of  the  buds  with  reference  to  light  than  it 
does  upon  the  position  with  reference  to  their 
arrangement  upon  the  twig. 

12.  Let  the  pupil  lie  under  a  dense  shade  tree 
on  a  summer's  day  and  look  up  into  the  dark 
top.  He  will  find  that  the  interior  of  the  top  is 
poorly  supplied 
with  leaves,  and 
that  the  long 
branches  are  leafy 
at  the  ends.  The 
outside  of  the  top 
presents  a  wall  of 
foliage,  often  so 
well  thatched  as 
to  shed  the  rain 
like  a  roof,  but 
the  inside  is  com- 
paratively bare. 
The  tree  may  be 
a  maple.  Fig.  5 
is  the  tip  of  a  side  shoot.  The  lower  leaves 
have  stretched  out  their  stalks  in  eagerness  for 
the  sunlight,  for  the  newer  leaves  are  constantly 


PIG.  6. 
Tip  shoot  of  Norway  maple. 


STIfl'GGLE   FOR  EXISTENCE   IN  A    TREE   TOP 


11 


FIG.  7. 

The  curious  history  of  a 
wild   cherry   tree. 


overtopping  them ;    and  the  blades 
of    these   leaves    stand    in    a    hor- 
izontal   position.         Fig.  6      is     a 
shoot    from   a    topmost 
bough,    where  there    is 
less   struggle    for  light, 
and     therefore     shorter 
leaf -stalks     and      more 
various      positions      of 
leaves.      It   may  be   said,    then, 
that   even   the   leaves  on  a  tree 
attempt    to    arrange    themselves 
with   reference    to    sunlight. 

13.  A  black  cherry  tree  two 
years  old,  taken  from  the  woods, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The 
first  year  it  grew  from  the 
ground  to  a,  and  it  bore  buds 
at  regular  intervals, — about  two 
dozen  of  them.  The  second 
year,  the  terminal  bud  sent  out 
a  shoot  to  &,  and  thirteen  lat- 
eral buds  gave  rise  to  branches. 
Of  these  thirteen  lateral  branches, 
obviously  only  three  stand  any 
chance  of  living  in  the  dense 
shade  of  the  forest.  In  fact, 
four  or  five  of  the  lowest 


12 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


twigs  were  dead  when  the  pic- 
ture was  made ;  showing  that 
the  struggle  for  existence  does 
not  always  result  from  compe- 
tition among  fellows  but  may 
arise  from  the  crowding  of 
other  plants. 

14.  These  three  strong 
branches  are  less  than  four  feet 
from  the  ground,  but  other  old 
cherry  trees  standing  near  it 
had  no  branches  within  fifteen 
and  twenty  feet  of  the  ground. 
They  no  doubt  branched  low 
down,  as  this  one,  but  the 
branches  eventually  died  in  the 
struggle ;  and  we  therefore 
have  reason  to  conclude  that 
of  all  the  branches  on  this 
little  tree,  only  the  terminal 
one,  &,  can  long  survive.  The 
trunk  of  a  tree,  then,  is  the 
remainder  in  a  long  problem 
of  subtraction. 


FIG.  8. 

Indeterminate  habit  of  the 
sweet  cherry. 


SUGGESTIONS.— A  young  tree  of  the  sweet  garden  cherry  is 
shown  in  Fig.  8,  and  one  of  the  Morello  or  pie  cherry  in  Fig.  9. 
In  the  former,  the  terminal  growths  are  strong,  and  the  leader,  or 
central  trunk,  has  persisted.  The  latter  has  long  since  lost  its 


STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE  IN  A    TREE   TOP 


13 


leader,  aud  the  side  growths  are  strong.  Let  the  pupil  now  figure 
out  how  many  buds  have  perished  (or  at  least  failed  to  make 
permanent  branches)  in  each  of  these  trees,  if  they  are  supposed 
to  be  seven  years  old.  Any  garden  cherry  tree  will  give  him  the 


FIG.  9. 
Determinate  habit  of  the   sour  cherry. 


probable  numoer  of  buds  to  each  annual  growth.  Evsn  without 
the  figures,  it  is  evident  that  there  are  very  many  more  failures 
than  successes  in  any  tree  top.  Let  him  also  explain  why  the 
branches  in  Fig.  8  are  in  tiers. 


14  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


IV.     A   BIT    OF   HISTORY 

15.  The  apple  shoot   in   Fig.  10  contains   a  vol- 
ume   of    history.      The    illustration    shows    a    single 
twig,    but    the    branch    is    so    long  that    it  is   broken 
several   times    in    order   to    get    it    on   the    page.     It 
arises    at    A,    and     continues,    consecutively,    at    B, 

C,  D,  G,  and  F.     A  prominent  feature  of   this  shoot, 
— as,    in    fact,    of    almost    any    branch    or    plant,— 
is    the    presence    of    unlikenesses    or    dissimilarities. 
No  two  of  the  members   are   alike. 

16.  Let  us   count  the  yearly  rings,  and  see   how 
old   the  whole   limb   is.     These    rings    are    at    28,  E, 

D,  12,  1, — five    of    them ;     and    as    the    shoot    grew 
one     year     before     it    made    any   ring,    and    another 
year     made     no     increase     in    length  —  as    we     shall 
see    presently  —  the    whole    branch     must    be    seven 
years    old.      That   is,   the    limb     presumably    started 
in    1890. 

16a.  It  is  really  impossible  to  tell  whether  the  shoot  started 
from  the  limb  A  in  1889  or  1890,  without  knowing  the  age  of  A; 
for  the  spur  may  have  developed  its  blossom  bud  at  the  end  in 
either  the  first  or  the  second  year  of  its  life.  That  is,  young  fruit- 
spurs  sometimes  make  a  blossom  bud  the  very  year  they  start,  but 
they  oftener  "stand  still"  the  second  year,  and  delay  the  formation  of 
the  blossom  bud  until  that  time. 

We  will  begin,  then,  at  A,  and  follow  it  out: 
165.     1890.     Started    as   a   spur   from    the   main   branch   A,    and   grew 

to  1. 


28 

FIG.  10. 
The  eventful  history  of  an  apple  twig. 


16  FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

16c.  1891.  Apple  borne  at  1.  This  apple  did  not  mature,  how- 
ever, as  we  can  readily  see  by  the  smallness  of  the  scar.  In 
this  year,  two  side  buds  developed  to  continue  the  spur  the 
next  year. 

I6d.  1892.  Gave  up  its  desire  to  be  a  fruit-spur,  and  made  a  strong 
growth,  to  12.  For  some  reason,  it  had  a  good  chance  to 
grow.  Perhaps  the  farmer  pruned  the  tree,  and  thereby  gave 
the  shoot  an  opportunity;  or  perhaps  he  plowed  and  fertilized 
the  land. 

In   the   meantime,  one    of    the    side    buds    grew   to    3,  and   the 
other   to    7,  and    each    made    a   fruit-bud    at.  its    end. 
16e.    1893.    Shoot    grew   lustily,— on   to    D. 

The  fruit-bud  at  3  bore  an  apple,  which  probably  matured, 
as  shown  by  the  scar  2.  Two  side  buds  were  formed  beneath 
this  apple  to  continue  the  spur  next  year. 

The  fruit-bud  at  7  bloomed,  but  the  apple  fell  early,  as  shown 
by  the  small  scar.  Two  side  buds  were  formed. 

The  buds  upon  the  main  shoot— 1  to  12— all  remained  dormant 
16/.    1894.    Shoot  grew  from  D  to  E. 

Side  bud  of  2  grew  to  4,  and  made  a  fruit-bud  on  its  end;  the 
other  side  bud  grew  to  5,  and  there  made  a  fruit-bud. 

Side  bud  of  7  grew  to  10,  and  the  other  one  to  8,  each  ending 
in  a  fruit -bud. 

Buds  on  old  shoot— 1  to  12— still  remained  dormant. 

Some  of  the  buds  on  the  1893  growth — 12  to  D, — remained   dor- 
mant, but   some  of  them  made  spurs, — 14,    16,  17,  18,  19,  20,   21, 
22,  23. 
160.    1895.    Shoot  grew  from  E  to  28. 

Flowers  were  borne  at  4  and  5,  but  at  4  the  fruit  fell  early, 
for  the  five  or  six  scars  of  the  flowers  can  be  seen,  showing 
that  no  one  of  them  developed  more  strongly  than  the  other; 
that  is,  none  of  the  flowers  "set."  A  fairly  good  fruit  was 
probably  borne  at  5.  At  the  base  of  each,  a  bud  started  to 
continue  the  spur  next  year. 

Upon  the  other  spur,  flowers  were  borne  both  at  8  and  10. 
At  10  none  of  the  flowers  set  fruit,  but  a  side  bud  developed. 
At  8  the  fruit  evidently  partially  matured,  and  a  side  bud  was 
also  developed. 


A   BIT  OF  HISTORY  17 

The  buds  upon  the  old  stem  from  1  to  12  still  remained 
dormant. 

Some  of  the  spurs  on  the  1893  growth  — 12  to  D  — developed 
fruit-buds  for  bearing  in  1896. 

Some  of  the  buds  on  the  1894  growth  —  D  to  E  —  remained 
dormant,  but  others  developed  into  small  fruit-spurs.  One  of 
these  buds,  near  the  top  of  the  1894  growth,  threw  out  a  long 
shoot,  starting  from  G;  and  the  bud  at  26  also  endeavored  to 
make  a  long  branch,  but  failed. 
I6h.  1896.  Main  shoot  grew  from  28  to  the  end. 

The  side  bud  below  4  (where  the  fruit  was  borne  the  year 
before)  barely  lived,  not  elongating,  as  seen  above  3.  This 
branch  of  the  spur  is  becoming  weak,  and  will  never  bear 
again.  The  side  bud  of  5,  however,  made  a  fairly  good  spur, 
and  developed  a  fruit -bud  at  its  end,  as  seen  at  6. 

The  side  bud  of  10  grew  somewhat,  making  the  very  short 
spur  (11).  This  branchlet  is  also  getting  weak.  The  bud  of 
8,  however,  developed  a  strong  spur  at  9.  Both  11  and  9  bear 
fruit -buds,  but  that  on  11  is  probably  too  weak  ever  to  bear 
fruit  again.  In  fact,  the  entire  spurs,  from  1  to  6  and  1  to  9, 
are  too  weak  to  be  of  much  account  for  fruit -bearing. 

This  year  several  of  the  spurs  along  the  1893  growth  — 12  to 
D  — bore  flowers.  Flowers  were  borne  from  two  buds  on  the 
first  one  (at  13  and  14),  but  none  of  the  flowers  "set."  One 
of  the  little  apples  that  died  last  June  still  clings  to  the  spur, 
at  14.  A  side  bud,  15,  formed  to  continue  the  spur  in  1897. 
Flowers  were  borne  at  16,  20,  21  and  23,  but  no  apples  de- 
veloped. Upon  16  and  20  the  flowers  died  soon  after  they 
opened,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  remains.  Upon  23,  one  of 
the  flowers  set  an  apple,  but  the  apple  soon  died.  The  spurs 
17  and  18  are  so  weak  that  they  never  have  made  fruit -buds, 
and  they  are  now  nearly  dead.  The  spurs  19  and  22  seem  to 
have  behaved  differently.  Like  the  others,  they  grew  in  1894,  and 
would  have  made  terminal  fruit-buds  in  1895,  and  borne  fruit  in 
1896;  but  the  terminal  buds  were  broken  off  in  the  fall  or  winter 
of  1894,  so  that  two  side  buds  developed  in  1895,  and  each  of 
these  developed  a  fruit-bud  at  its  end  in  1896  in  the  spur  19, 
but  only  one  of  them  developed  such  a  bud  in  22.  Upon  these 
spurs,  therefore,  the  bearing  year  has  been  changed. 


18  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

Upon  the  growth  of  1894  — D  to  E  — only  three  spurs  have 
developed,  Nos.  24,  25,  26.  These  started  out  in  1895,  and  two 
of  them  —  25  and  2G  —  have  made  large,  thick  buds,  which  are 
evidently  fruit -buds.  The  shoot  at  G  grew  on  to  E  E,  and  all 
the  buds  on  its  lower  two-year-old  portion  remained  dormant. 

On  the  1895  growth  — from  E  to  28  — all  the  buds  remained 
dormant  except  one,  and  this  one  — 27  — made  only  a  very  feeble 
attempt  to  grow  into  a  spur. 

The  buds  upon  the  1892  growth  —  1  to  12  —  are  still  dormant 
raid  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  grow.  Although  these  buds  are 
five  years  old,  they  are  still  apparently  viable,  and  would  grow  if 
they  had  the  opportunity.  Let  the  pupil  determine  how  long 
these  dormant  buds  may  remain  in  apparently  good  condition  on 
apple  and  other  fruit  trees. 

17.  What  an  eventful  history  this  apple  twig 
has  had !  And  yet  in  all  the  seven  years  of 
its  life,  after  having  made  fifteen  efforts  to  bear 
fruit,  it  has  not  produced  one  good  apple ! 
The  fault,  therefore,  does  not  lie  in  the  shoot. 
It  has  done  the  best  it  could.  The  trouble  has 
been  that  the  farmer  did  not  give  the  tree  enough 
food  to  enable  it  to  support  the  fruits,  or  he 
did  not  prune  the  tree  so  as  to  give  the  twig 
light  and  room,  or  he  allowed  apple- scab  or 
some  other  disease  to  kill  the  young  apples  as 
they  were  forming.  We  may  question,  therefore, 
when  trees  fail  to  bear,  whether  it  is  not  quite 
as  often  the  fault  of  the  farmer  as  the  trees. 
Every  orchard  affords  an  interesting  field  for  ex- 
ploration, and  even  a  youth  may  be  able  to  dis- 


THE   OPENING   OF   THE  BUDS 


19 


cover     facts    which     the   fruit-grower     himself    may 
never   have  seen. 


V.      THE    OPENING    OF    THE    BUDS 

18.  We  are  curious  to  know  how  the  buds  of 
the  apple  twigs  (Figs.  1,  2  and  3)  open  in  the 
spring,  and  how  the  "young  growths  start  out. 
Let  us  look  at  the  trees,  and  see.  Fig.  12  is 


FIG.  11. 
Spurs  of  a  crab  apple. 


from   the  same    Siberian  crab -apple   tree 

that    Fig.    11    is.       The    pupil    will     see 

where    the     fruit    was    borne    last    year. 

He  will  see  at   a  glance   that   the  present 

opening     buds   are     the    leaf -buds    which 

were   formed   on    the    side    of    the    spur    last    year. 

The    little    dry    scales  "which    covered    the    buds    in 

the    winter    have    been    pushed     aside,    and    a    new 

shoot    is     coming    forth.       The     leaves     are     many. 

In    a    few   days    we    shall    be    able    to    count    them. 

Already  nine  of  them  are  visible  on  the  upper  spur, 


20 


FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


and  only  eleven  were  borne  all  summer  long  on 
the  annual  growth  in  Fig.  2.  The  fact  is  that 
there  are  as  many  leaves  packed  away  in  the  bud 
(as  a  rule)  as  there  will 
be  leaves  on  next  year's 
shoot. 

19  o  Another  most  curi- 
ous fact  about  these  open- 
ing buds  is  that  the  low- 
est leaves  are  smaller 
than  the  middle  ones. 
The  full  size  of  the 
enfolded  leaves  cannot 
yet  be  made  out.  Let 
the  pupil  see  to  what 
size  they  will  attain.  It 
is  enough  to  know  that 
the  lowest  are  smallest 
and  presumably  weakest ; 
and  Fig.  2  shows  that 
they  are  borne  closer 
together.  We  have  also  seen,  in  all  our  speci- 
mens, that  very  few  good  buds  are  borne  at 
the  base  of  the  annual  growth  (compare  Figs.  1-3 )0 
We  suspect,  therefore,  that  not  only  the  number 
of  leaves,  but  the  character  of  the  forthcom- 
ing buds,  is  very  largely  determined  before- 
hand. 


FIG.    12. 
Opening  buds  of  a  crab-apple. 


THE   OPE  NINO   OF   THE  BUDS  21 

20.  These   buds    open   with    surprising   quickness 
when  spring  comes  (particularly  at  the  north).     The 
buds   have   been   entirely  inactive   all  winter,  so   far 
as  we  could   see;    and,  moreover,  they  are   just  the 
same    shape    and   size    in   the    spring    as    they   were 
when    the    leaves    dropped    in   the    fall.       We    must 
conclude,    then,   that     these    leaves    and   an    embryo 
shoot    were    packed    away    in    the    bud    during    the 
growing  season  of  last  year;    and  this  is  true. 

21.  The  pupil  can  still  further  satisfy  himself  of 
the    truth    of    this    conclusion    by   taking    into     the 
house  during  the  winter  a  twig  from  a  tree  or  bush, 
and   keeping   it   in   water   in   a   warm   room.      In   a 
few  weeks,  it  will  produce  leaves,  and  also  flowers, 
if   it  bears  flower-buds.     This  experiment  also  shows 
that    the    first    leaves    and    flowers   which   come   out 
on   early  spring-flowering  trees  and  bushes   are   sus- 
tained   by   nourishment   which    is    stored   up    in    the 
branch    or   the   bud,    not    by   that   taken    in   at   the 
time   by   the   roots. 

22.  Let    the    pupil    examine    a    rapidly-growing 
shoot  of  any  plant  in  spring   or  very  early  summer. 
He   will  not  find   the   large   buds   which   he  sees   in 
fall   and   winter.     He   concludes,   therefore,    that   the 
plant  does   not  need   these   large   buds   for  purposes 
of    growth.     Plants   must  have    a   means    of    carry- 
ing  the    growing    points    over   winter   (or    over    the 
dry    or    inactive    season,    in    the    tropics) ;     and    in 


22  FIRST   LESSONS    WITH   PLANTS 

order  that  time  may  be  gained,  the  future  branch 
is  packed  away  in  miniature,  ready  to  leap  forth 
upon  the  first  awakening  of  spring. 

23.  If  the  leaves  — and  therefore  the  number  of 
buds  on  the  shoot  —  are  determined  in  the  bud, 
how  does  the  shoot  increase  in  length?  If  it  grows 
from  its  tip  alone,  the  leaves  would  be  left  behind. 
We  know  that  this  is  not  the  case.  Again,  we 
know  that  the  joints  or  nodes  (the  places  where 
the  leaves  are  borne)  are  really  much  closer  together 
in  these  opening  shoots  in  Fig.  12  than  they  are 
in  the  mature  shoots  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  In  other 


FIG.  13. 

Opening  of  leaf-buds  and  flower-buds. 

words,  it  is  plain  that  the  shoot  increases  in  length 
by  elongating  the  internodes  (or  spaces  between  the 
buds) 

24.  Another  apple  twig  is  shown  in  Fig.  13. 
We  are  already  familiar  with  the  leaf -buds,  but  the 
lowest  bud  is  strange.  It  is  a  fruit-bud.  The  bud- 
&cales  fall  away?  as  before,  but  there  comes  forth 


THE   OPENING   OF   THE  BUDS 


23 


not  only  a  cluster  of  leaves  but  a  cluster  of  un- 
opened flowers.  We  know  that  when  an  apple  is 
borne  upon  a  spur,  the  spur  ceases  to  grow  in 
that  direction  (p.  7) ;  that 
is,  the  apple  fruit  is 
terminal.  Then  we  know 
that  the  shoot  from  this 
bud  is  destined  to  re- 
main short  all  summer, 
and  we  infer  that  the 
leaves  upon  this  short 
spur  will  exercise  an  im- 
portant office  in  nourish- 
ing the  fruit. 

25.    We      know      that 
apples   are  usually  borne 

Struggle  for  existence  among  the 

singly,  and  yet   the  flow-  apple  flowers> 

ers  (as  seen  in   Fig.   13) 

are  in  clusters.  Two  or  three  weeks  after  the  flow- 
ers have  gone,  we  examine  the  young  apples,  and 
we  see  something  like  Fig,  14.  One  apple  has 
persisted  and  all  the  others  have  perished.  There 
is,  then,  struggle  for  existence  even  among  flow- 
ers; and  in  apples,  at  least,  we  are  to  expect  many 
more  flowers  than  fruits  „ 

SUGGESTIONS. —  The  pupil  should  prove  the  conclusion  in  14  ex- 
perimentally. Let  him  lay  off  spaces  at  equal  distances  (say  one- 
quarter  inch)  on  a  young  growing  twig,  and  mark  them  with  indelible 
ink.  If  he  visits  the  twig  from  day  to  day,  and  takes  exact 
measurements,  he  will  make  an  interesting  discoverv. 


FIG.  14. 


II.    LEAVES 


VI.      WHAT    IS    A    LEAF? 

26.    Is    there   one    leaf,  or    three,  in   the    picture 
of     the    dewberry    (or    blackberry),  Fig.     15?       We 
have  already  found  that  branches 
persist ;    that    is,    they      do     not 
fall    upon    the   approach    of    win- 
ter.     Leaves    commonly    die    and 
fall.     Here,  therefore,  is  a  means 
of    answering  the  question.     Does 
each  of    the  three  parts  fall  away 
in    the    autumn    and     leave     the 
common  stalk,  a,  upon   the  vine, 
as     a     branch?        Or 
does  the  entire  struc- 
ture   fall  ? 

27.  Buds  are  formed 
in  the  axils  of  leaves, 
as  a  rule.  Where 
are  the  axillary  buds 

(24) 


FIG.  15. 
Dewberry. 


WHAT  IS   A    LEAF? 


25 


in  the  dewberry,— in  the  axils  of  each  of  the 
three  parts,  or  in  the  axil  of  the  stalk  a  f 
Again,  leaves  are  borne  at  nodes ;  and  the 


FIG.  16. 
Leaf  of  Lombardy  poplar. 


FIG.  17. 
Spray  of  young  apple  leaves. 


plant  axis  upon  which  they  are  borne  either  ex- 
tends beyond  them  or  gives  evidence  that  it  may 
do  so. 

28.    What    comprises   the    leaf    in    Fig.    16     (the 


26 


FIUST  LESSON'S    WITH   PLANTS 

Lombardy  poplar)  ?  Is  the  leaf  the  ex- 
panded portion,  or  is  it  that  portion 
plus  the  stalk  ?  Let  the  pupil  apply 
the  above  tests,  and  answer. 

29.  In   the   young  apple  foliage   (Fig. 
17),  what    comprises     the    leaf,— the     ex- 
panded   portion,  the    stalk,  the    two  awl- 
like    bodies   at    the    base,  or   all   of   them 
together?      How   many   leaves    are    there 
on    the   branch? 

30.  Point   out    the   extremities  of    the 
leaf     in     the    wheat     (Fig.     18),     or     in 
any   grass.      Does   it    attach   to    the   stem 
at    1   or   at   6? 

31.  Designate   the    leaves  in   Figs.   19 
and    20,  and   give   the    proofs. 


FIG.  18. 
Leaf  of  wheat. 


VII.       THE    PARTS    OF    LEAVES 

32.  We  are  now  ready  to  believe  that 
a  leaf  may  have  two  or  three  distinct 
parts, — the  expanded  portion  or  blade, 
the  stalk  or  petiole,  and  appendages  at 
the  base,  or  stipules.  We  also  know  that 
it  may  have  only  the  blade,  as  in  the 
live  oak  leaves  in  Fig.  21 ;  and  it  may 
have  only  the  petiole  or  the  stipules. 


THE   PARTS   OF   LEAVES 


27 


For  example,  observe  that  the  bud -scales  of  the 
common  black  currant  gradually  pass  into  leaves, 
but  the  leaves  are  borne  on  the  ends  of  scales ; 


FIG.  19. 
Honeysuckle 


Black  walnut. 


therefore,  the  scales  must  represent  transformed 
petioles,  not  transformed  blades.  The  enlarged 
and  green  bud -scales  of  the  Norway  maple  are 


28 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


petioles,  affording    an   example   of    leaf -stalks  which 
perform   functions  of   leaf -blades. 


FIG.  21. 
Various  leaves  of  a  live  oak. 


FIG.  2L\ 
Leaf  of  a  willow. 


33.    The    leaf    of    a   willow  is   shown  in    Fig.  22. 
The  stipules  are  so  leaf -like  as  to  indicate   that   they 


THE  PARTS  OF  LEAVES  29 

must  act  the  part  of  foliage  (i,  e.,  perform  the 
functions  of  green  leaves).  If,  for  any  reason, 
the  leaf -blades  were  to  perish,  it  is  conceivable  that 
the  stipules  could  maintain  the  plant.  This  actually 


PIG.  23. 
Virginia  creeper. 

occurs  in  some  plants  (as  in  some  of  the  vetches) ,  in 
which  the  entire  foliage  is  made  up  of  large  stipules. 

33a.  A  leaf  which  has  no  petiole  is  said  to  be  sessile  (i.  e.,  "sit- 
ting"), a  term  applied  to  any  member  which  is  destitute  of  a  stalk 
or  stem,  as  flowers,  stamens,  or  fruits. 

34.    How  shall  we  define  the  parts  in  the  leaf  of 


30 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH   PLANTS 


the  Virginia  creeper  (Fig.  23)!  The  petiole  is 
plain;  but  shall  we  say  that  there  are  five  distinct 
blades,  or  that  the  blade  is  divided  into  five  parts! 
Figs.  24  and  25  are  leaves  from  one  grape  vine. 


FIG.  24. 
Grape  leaf. 


FIG.  25. 
Deeply-lobed  grape  leaf. 


Each  plainly  is  one  leaf.  The  former  has  three 
well  marked  lobes,  and  the  latter  has  these  lobes 
much  more  deeply  cut.  In  fact,  there  are  strong 
indications  of  five  parts.  It  is  not  difficult  to  imag- 
ine the  clefts  extending  to  the  mid-rib,  as  they 


THE  PARTS   OF    LEAVES 


31 


do  in  the  Virginia  creeper  (which  is  a  very  closely 
related  plant),  and  a  compound  leaf  would  be  the 
result  (that  is,  a  leaf  in  which  the  blade  is  com- 
posed of  at  least  two  wholly  separated  portions). 

35.   Each   part  of   the  Virginia  creeper    leaf  (and 
also   of   the  dewberry  leaf)  is  borne  upon  a  distinct 


FIG.   26. 
Bean   leaves. 

stalklet   of     its    own.       These     stalklets,    then,     are 
secondary   petioles,    or  petiolules. 

36.  Bean  leaves  (Fig.  26)  are  seen  to  be  com- 
pound, with  both  petiole  and  petiolules.  Moreover, 
these  petiolules  are  provided  with  little  stipules,  or 
stipels.  Let  the  pupil  now  determine  if  there  is  a 


32  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

joint  at  any  place  on  the  petiolules  at  which  point 
the  three  parts  may  break  off  in  the  fall;  and  is 
the  Virginia  creeper  like  the  bean  in  this  respect? 
37.  The  leaf  of  the  Canada  thistle  (Fig.  27),- 
and  of  most  other  thistles, — is  variously  cut  or 
jagged,  but  is  nowhere  completely  separated,  and  is 
not,  therefore,  a  compound  leaf.  We  have  seen, 
then,  that  there  are  various  gradations  between  the 
simple  leaf  (that  is,  one  in  which  the  blade  is  one 


FIG.  27. 
Canada  thistle. 

more  or  less  continuous  piece,  as  in  Figs.  16,  17, 
18,  21,  22),  and  the  compound  leaf.  In  the  true 
compound  leaf  the  parts  are  generally  articulated 
(or  separated  by  joints),  and  are,  therefore,  usu- 
ally provided  with  petiolules,  although  these  are 
sometimes  wanting.  The  different  parts  may  fall 
independently  of  the  entire  leaf,  or  they  may 
not. 

38.    Inasmuch     as    there    seems     to    be    a    well 


THE  COMPOUND  LEAF  33 

marked  difference  between  the  distinct  divisions  in 
the  Virginia  creeper  and  the  ill-defined  ones  in 
grape  and  Canada  thistle,  we  may  give  the  two 
types  different  names.  Or,  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound leaf  are  leaflets ;  the  deep  cut  parts,  like 
those  in  the  thistle,  are  divisions  or  segments;  the 
shallower  parts  (ordinarily  not  extending  more  than 
half  way  to  the  midrib)  are  lobes,  as  in  Fig. 
25. 


SUGGESTIONS.— The  pupil  will  now  find  himself  applying  the  fore- 
going tests  to  all  the  leaves  which  he  meets.  Let  him  determine 
whether  any  plant  bears  both  simple  and  compound  leaves.  He  may 
be  interested  in  examining  the  so-called  Boston  ivy  or  Japanese  Vir- 
ginia creeper  which  is  much  planted  for  covering  houses;  also,  the 
horse-radish  (examine  the  very  earliest  leaves  in  spring)  ;  also,  one  of 
the  cultivated  forsythias  or  yellow  bells  (the  so  called  climbing  one, 
Forsythia  suspensa). 


Vni.      THE   COMPOUND   LEAF 

39.  The  leaflets  of  the  dewberry  and  Virginia 
creeper  arise  from  a  common  point,— the  top  of 
the  petiole.  If  the  blade  of  the  thistle  (Fig.  27) 
were  compound,  the  leaflets  would  evidently  be 
distributed  in  two  rows  along  a  central  axis. 
Compare  Figs.  28  and  29.  There  are,  then, 
two  distinct  types  of  compound  leaves,— the  digi- 
tate or  palmate  (in  which  the  leaflets  are  at- 


34 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH    PLANTS 


tached  to  a  common  point,  like  the  bones  of  the 
hand  to  the  wrist,  and  the  petiole  shows  no  ten- 
dency to  continue  beyond  the  point  of  their  at- 
tachment) ;  and  the  pinnate  (in  which  the  leaflets 
are  arranged  on  the  sides  of  an  axis  like  the 
parts  of  a  feather).  The  axis  is  prolonged  in 

the  pinnate  leaves, 
and  the  part  beyond 
the  first  leaflet  is 
called  a  rachis. 

40.  If,  now,  the 
leaflets  in  Figs.  15, 
23,  28  were  grown  to- 
gether, what  would 
be  the  method  of 
attachment  of  the 
main  veins  or  ribs 
in  the  resulting 
simple  leaf?  If  the 

FIG.  28.  grape  leaf  (Figs.  24, 

Leaf  of  poison  ivy.  25)  were  to  become 

compound,  would  it 

be  palmate  or  pinnate?  Would  the  oak  (Fig.  21) 
have  palmate  or  pinnate  leaves?  Why  would  the 
thistle  leaf  (Fig.  27)  become  pinnate  rather  than 
palmate?  Let  the  pupil  examine  various  kinds 
of  leaves,  and  determine  if  simple  leaves  are 
either  palmate- veined  or  pinnate- veined, 


THE   COMPOUND   LEAF 


35 


FIG.    29. 
Leaf   of    poison    sumac. 

41.  The   Virginia   creeper    leaf  has   five   leaflets, 
or   is   quinate    (parts   in   fives).     The  dewberry  and 
the   poison   ivy   have    three 

leaflets,  or  are  ternate  (part 
in  threes).  The  jeffersonia 
(Fig.  30)  has  two  leaflets, 
or  is  binate.  Is  this  jef- 
f ersonia  leaf  essentially  pal- 
mate, or  essentially  pinnate  ? 

42,  A  leaf  of  the  squirrel- 
corn  (or  dicentra)  is  shown, 
Fig.     31.       It    is    evidently 
ternate    and     palmate ;    but 
each     part    is    again    divi- 
ded   into    three,    and     each 
of  these  is    again  variously 
divided      and      cut.        The 
leaf,   therefore,   is   biternate 

(or    twice    ternate) .       The  FIG.  so. 

Binate  leaf  of  jeffersonia. 


36 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


entire  leaf  is  said  to  be  decompound  (a  term  ap- 
plied to  all  leaves  in  which  the  leaflets  are  com- 
pound ;  that  is,  to  leaves  which  are  more  than 
once  compound) . 

43.   It    is    plain    that    there    is    no    positive    or 


FIG.  31. 
Leaf   of   squirrel-corn. 

definite  number  of  ultimate  divisions  in  this 
dicentra  leaf.  (Let  the  pupil  examine  the  bleed- 
ing-heart of  the  gardens,  which  is  also  a  di- 
centra.) These  ultimate  parts  are,  therefore,  not 
leaflets,  but  segments  or  divisions.  Is  the  leaf- 
let the  portion  extending  from  a  to  &,  or  from 


THE   COMPOUND  LEAF 


37 


c  to  d?  It  is  the  latter;  that  is,  it  is  custom- 
ary, in  speaking  of  decompound  leaves,  to  use 
the  term  leaflet  for  the  last  part  which  is  clearly 
and  completely  (and  more  or  less  uniformly) 
separated  from  its  neighbors. 

43fl.  The  primary  divisions  in  a  palmately  decompound  leaf  (as 
«  6)  are  not  given  a  distinct  name  in  general  botanical  literature. 
The  botanist  would  describe  this  dicentra  leaf  (Fig.  31)  nearly  as  fol- 
lows :  Leaf  ternately  decompound  (or  sometimes  written  ternately 
compound,  if  the  degree  of  compounding  is  afterwards  specified),  the 
main  sections  bearing  palmately  —  or  even  pinnately  —  divided  leaflets, 
the  segments  again  deeply  cut  or  divided. 

44.  The  leaf  in  Fig.  32  (a 
gum  arable  tree,  a  kind  of  aca- 
cia) is  decompound,  and  is  pin- 
nate. Each  of  the  numerous 
entire  pieces  or  parts  is  called 
a  leaflet,  and  the  six  primary 
parts  are  pinnae.  The  leaf  is 
pinnately  bi-compound  (or  twice- 
compound).  If  each  of  the 
leaflets  was  again  compound— 
which  is  not  very  rare  in 
plants  of  this  family — the  leaf 
would  be  said  to  be  tri-com- 
pound ;  the  primary  parts  would  still  be  called 
pinnae,  the  secondary  parts  pinnules,  and  the  last 
complete  divisions  leaflets. 

45.   This    acacia    leaf    has   no   terminal   leaflets. 


PIG.  32. 

Twice-pinnate  leaf  of 
acacia. 


38  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

Compare  the  poison  sumac  (Fig.  29).  That 
is,  one  is  abruptly-pinnate,  like  the  honey  locust 
and  the  peanut  (having  no  terminal  leaflet), 
and  the  other  is  odd-pinnate.  The  latter  is  the 
more  common  form.  Leaves  are  fairly  constant 


FIG.    33. 
Spray  of    Currant   tomato. 

in  these  characters,  but  the  pupil  will  be  inter- 
ested to  find  exceptions.  Let  him  examine, 
among  others,  the  leaves  of  black  walnuts  and 
butternuts. 

46.    Leaves     of     a     tomato    are    shown     in     the 


THE   COMPOUND  LEAF 


39 


spray  in  Fig.  33.  All  the  leaves  have  two  kinds 
of  leaflets, — certain  ones  which  may  be  taken  as 
the  normal  size,  and  other  small  ones  interposed. 
This  kind  of  leaf  is  common  in  the  tomato  and 
potato  tribes.  On  account  of  the  intermediate 
leaflets,  snch  a  leaf  is  said  to  be  interrupted. 
This  one,  then,  is  interruptedly  pinnate. 

47.    Another    tomato  leaf  is   shown   in   Fig.   34. 


FIG.  34. 
Leaf  of    Mikado  tomato. 


In  this  instance  there  are  no  interposed  leaflets, 
but  the  leaflets  vary  much  in  size  and  shape. 
In  other  words,  it  is  an  example  of  an  irregu- 
larly compound  leaf.  The  leaf  looks  as  if  it 


40 


FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


might  represent   foliage  of    an 
indefinite    form ;     or,  in    other 
words,  that   there    is  no  abso- 
lute   and   typical    form   of    to- 
mato   leaves.      Let   the 
pupil     examine      many 
tomato    plants,  and  see 
if    this  is    true. 

48.     The  dahlia   leaf 
is    peculiar    (Fig.    35). 
In    this  specimen    there 
are      five     well -defined 
leaflets,    C,    0,    M,    M, 
A ;    but   one   of   these, 
A,    has    given    rise    to 
a     strong     segment     or 
division,        and         two 
others     have     divisions 
which     are     sufficiently 
distinct     to     be    called 
leaflets.     There  are  va- 
rious   grades    of     dividing    or 
compounding,     and     the     leaf 
may    be    said     to     be    mixed. 
It      is     incompletely     bi- com- 
pound. 

49.    From    observations    on 
leaves,  we  are  soon  impressed 


FIG.  35. 
Leaf  of  dahlia. 


TEE   COMPOUND  LEAF  41 

with  the  multitude  of  forms.  We  are  also 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  there  may  be 
great  variety, —  or  elasticity, —  of  forms  in  the 
same  kind  of  plant,  showing  that  nature  is  really 
informal.  Definitions,  however,  are  formal ;  and 
it,  therefore,  follows  that  definitions  should  be 
compared  with  the  objects,  not  the  objects  with 
the  definitions. 

The  terminology  (or  naming)  of  compound  leaves  may  be  further 
explained,  as  follows: 

49a.     In  making  compounds  to  express  the  number   of   leaflets,  the 
Latin  for  leaflet  (foliolum)  is  used,  not  the  word   for  leaf  (folium);    a 
trifoliate  leaf  is,  therefore,  an  impossibility.     It  is  like  saying  "three- 
leaved  leaf."     However,  usage  has  sanctioned  its  employment,  although 
it  is  etymologic  ally  improper.     The  better  forms  are — 
TJnifoliolate,  a  compound  leaf  of  one  leaflet; 
Bifoliolate,  of  two  leaflets; 
Trifoliolate,  of  three  leaflets; 
Quadrifoliolate,  of  four  leaflets; 
Quinquefoliolate,  of  five  leaflets; 
Plurifoliolate,  of  several  or  many  leaflets. 

Any  of  these  terms  may  be  applied  to  either  digitately  or  palm- 
ately  compound  leaves. 

49b.     The  degree  of  compounding  is  often  specified  as  follows: 
Compound,  once  compound, 
Bi-compound,  twice  compound,  etc.; 
De-compound,  more  than  once  compound,  without  specifying  the 

degree. 

Similarly,  pinnately  compound  leaves  may  be  designated  as  bipin- 
nate,  tripinnate,  etc. ;  and  palmately  compound  ones  as  bipalmate,  tri- 
palmate,  etc.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  palmate  leaves  are  rarely  decom- 
pound if  they  have  more  than  three  primary  divisions;  so  that  it  is 
customary  to  speak  of  palmately  compound  leaves  as  ternate,  biternate, 
tritentate,  multiternate,  etc. 

SUGGESTIONS. — The  venation  of    a   leaf    (or  petal)   is  the  arrange- 


42 


FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


ment  and  other  features  of  the  veins  or  ribs.  Let  the  pupil  collect 
abundantly  of  leaves  (and  indiscriminately,  if  he  choose),  and  match 
the  venation  in  them.  Possibly  he  may  find  his  pencil  useful  in 
recording  and  interpreting  the  differences.  The  drawings  should  be 
of  use  in  the  accustomed  freehand  exercises  of  the  school;  that  is, 
the  work  with  the  pencil  should  be  undertaken  more  in  the  interest 
of  instruction  in  drawing  than  in  the  interest  of  nature-study. 


IX.     THE    FORMS    OF    LEAVES 

50.     The  forms  of  leaves 
(and  of  leaflets)   interest  us 
in  two  directions, — in  respect 
to  the    relation   which   they 
bear     to     the    welfare    and 
history  of   the    plant   (or  to 
adaptation  to  particular  pur- 
poses    of    the    plant),    and 
in   respect    to    their   use   in 
enabling  us  to  recognize  and 
describe  plants.     The  former 
subject    cannot    be    considered   here. 
We  shall,  therefore,  define  the  forms 
for   purposes  of    description ;    but   in 
doing   this    we    must   remember    that 
there  is  every  grade   of   intermediate 
form.     Certain  geometrical  figures   or 
arbitrary    ideals    are     taken    as    the 
standards  of  comparison,  and  it  must 


FIG.  36. 

Lanceolate  leaves  of 
red  pepper. 


THE  FORMS  OF  LEAVES 


43 


not  be  expected,  therefore,  that  typical  examples  of 
the  various  forms  are  necessarily  to  be  found  in 
nature. 

51.  One  of  the  first  conceptions  of  forms  of 
leaves  which  it  is  necessary  to  apprehend  is  that  of 
the  lanceolate  (or  lance-shaped)  leaf.  Lances  were  of 


FIG.   37. 
Ovate   leaves   of   red   pepper. 

various  shapes,  but  the  botanical  conception  is  a 
form  four  to  six  times  longer  than  wide,  and 
tapering  at  both  ends,  but  the  widest  part  is  usu- 
ally conceived  to  be  below  the  middle.  The 
leaves  of  the  red  pepper  (Fig.  36)  are  examples. 
52.  Perhaps  the  next  conception  in  importance 


44 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


is   that   of    the  ovate    leaf.      This 
is   about   twice  as   long  as   broad, 
tapering    from   near    the    base    to 
a   narrow    or    pointed    apex.      The 
leaf     at     a    in      Fig.    37     (another 
form  of  red  pepper)  is  an  example. 
53.    A    third     type     form     is 
the    oblong    leaf.      This    is    about 
twice    as    long    as     broad,    with 
the    sides    nearly    parallel    from 
top    to    bottom.     Typical    oblong 
leaves    are    rare,    but    the     form 
is    freely    used    in    combination 
with    the    lanceolate    and    ovate 
types.      Thus   the    chestnut    leaf 
(Fig.    38)    is   oblong -lanceolate. 
The  sumac  leaflets  (Fig.  29)  are 
ovate -oblong ;     so  are   the   leaf- 
lets   of     Fig.    35.         In     these 
combinations,    the    second    word 
is  the  one  which  is  to    be   chiefly 
emphasized ;     that    is,    an    oblong- 
ovate    leaf    is   one  which    is    more 
ovate  than  oblong,  whereas  an  ovate- 
oblong   leaf    is    one    more    oblong 
than  ovate.      The  narrower  leaves 
in    Fig.  37   are   lance -ovate   (i.  e., 
lanceolate -ovate) . 


FIG.  38. 

Oblong-lanceolate  leaf  of 
chestnut. 


THE  FORMS   OF   LEA  I'ES 


45 


54.  Other    type   forms    are   the   elliptical,  which 
is    like    the    oblong,  except    that    it    tapers    equally 
both    ways     from     the     middle ;      spatulate,    which 
is  oblong   with   the    lower   end  narrow;    oval,   which 
is    broadly  elliptical ;    orbicular,    circular   in  outline ; 
deltoid,    or    triangular ;     cuneate,    or    wedge-shaped ; 

linear,  or  several  times  longer 
than  broad,  and  the  same  width 
throughout;  needle-shaped,  as  in 
pines  and  spruces.  If  any  of 
the  type  forms  are  reversed, 
or  inverted,  the  fact  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  prefix  ol> ;  as 
oblanceolate,  obovate.  Combi- 
nations of  these  terms,  together 
with  the  use  of  familiar  adjec- 
tives (as  short-ovate,  long-lan- 
ceolate ,  round  -  obovate ,  etc . ) , 
express  most  of  the  common 
outlines  of  leaves. 

55.  Aside    from   the    general    outline,   the   form 
of    the     leaf    is    determined     by    the    shape    of    its 
apex    and    base.      The   apex   may  be  acute   or  end- 
ing  in  a  sharp   angle  (Figs.  24,  25,  37) ;     acuminate, 
ending   in  a    long   point    (Figs.    26,  38) ;     obtuse,  or 
blunt    (Fig.  19) ;    truncate,  or  squared    at   the  end ; 
retuse,  or    indented  (as   the  upper   leaves   in   honey- 
suckle).     The   base  may  be  cordate  or    heart-shaped 


FIG.  39. 

Cordate-ovate  crenate  leaf 
of  catnip. 


46  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

(as  in  Fig.  39,  which  is  a  cordate -ovate  leaf) ; 
reniform,  or  kidney -shaped  ;  auriculate,  or  eared; 
sagittate,  or  arrow- shaped  ;  abrupt,  or  suddenly  nar- 
rowed to  the  petiole  (as  in  the  broader  leaves  in 
Fig.  37);  gradually  narrowed  (as  in  Figs.  36,  38). 
The  cavity  or  recess  in  the  base  of  a  leaf,  like 
the  grape  (Figs.  24,  25),  or  moonseed  is  a  sinus. 
56.  The  features  of  the  margins  of  leaves, 
like  their  forms,  are  interesting  because  they  are 
intimately  related  to  the  origin  or  evolution  of  the 
particular  leaf  (and,  therefore,  of  the  plant),  and 
also  as  a  means  of  affording  descriptive  char- 
acters. The  simple,  straight  margin  is  said  to  be 
entire  (Figs.  26,  29,  30,  36,  37).  Departures  from 
this  form  are  the  serrate,  or  saw -toothed  (Fig.  35) ; 
dentate,  or  toothed  (Figs.  23,  24,  25,  38,  the  last 
being,  perhaps,  intermediate  between  serrate  and 
dentate) ;  crenate,  or  scalloped  (Fig.  39) ;  repand, 
or  wavy,  or  undulate  (Fig.  30  is  obscurely  so) ; 
sinuate,  which  is  a  deep  undulation  ;  and  then 
follow  the  deep  margins,  as  cut,  jagged,  lobed. 
cleft,  and  the  like.  Leaves  are  said  to  be  cleft 
when  the  divisions  extend  deeper  than  the  middle 
of  the  blade,  and  lobed  when  they  are  not  more 
than  half  the  depth  of  the  blade. 

56a.  The  diagrams  of  forms  and  margins  of  leaves  given  by 
Linnaeus  are  reproduced  in  exact  form  and  size  in  Fig.  40:  1, 
orbiculate  ;  2,  sub-orbiculate  (or  subrotundate) ;  3,  ovate  ;  4,  oval, 
or  elliptical  ;  5,  oblong  ;  6,  lanceolate  [narrower  than  present  bot- 


FIG.  40. 
Linnaeus'  diagrams  of  leaves.     1751. 


48 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


anists  define  lanceolate  to  be];  7,  linear;  8,  sabulate  [awl-like]; 
9,  reniform;  10,  cordate;  11,  lunulate  [or  crescent  -  shaped] ;  12,  tri- 
angular; 13,  sagittate;  14,  cordate -sagittate;  15,  hastate;  16,  cleft 
["fissum,"  now  called  obcordate]  ;  17,  three-lobed,  or  trilobate;  IS, 
preinorse  [irregularly  notched  at  the  end];  19,  lobod,  or  lobate;  20, 
five-angled;  21,  erose  [jagged  or  bitten];  22,  palmate;  23,  pinnati- 

fid;  24,  laciniate;  25,  sinuate;  26, 
dentate -sinuate;  27,  retrorse- sinu- 
ate ;  28,  parted ;  29,  repand ;  30, 
dentate;  31,  serrate;  32,  doubly- 


FIG.  41. 
Variation  in  birch  leaves   from    the  same  tree. 


serrate;  33,  doubly-crenate  ;  34,  cartilaginous;  35,  acutely-erenate  ; 
36,  obtusely-crenate  ;  37,  plicate  ;  38,  crenate  ;  39,  crisped  ;  40,  ob- 
tuse ;  41,  acute  ;  42,  acuminate,  ;  43,  obtusely -acuminate  ;  44,  emar- 
ginate  acute. 

SUGGESTIONS.— Let  the  pupil  cut  the  form  of  any  leaf  in  paper, 
and  then  endeavor  to  match  it  in  other  leaves.  He  will  discover 
how  difficult  it  is  to  describe  a  leaf  with  accuracy,  and  will  also 
apprehend  the  greater  truth  that  there  are  no  two  leaves  alike. 


III.    FLOWERS 


X.     WHAT   IS   A   FLOWER? 

57.  A  flower  of  the  hepatica,  or  liverwort, 
which  springs  from  the  mold  with  the  first 
warmth  of  spring,  is  drawn  in 
Fig.  42.  The  most  hasty  ob- 
servation shows  that  it  has  sev- 
eral parts.  Let  us  pull  them 
away.  We  first  find  three  green 
leaf -like  members.  Above  these 
are  several  (seven  in  this  case)  pink 
or  blue  members.  On  the  inside 
are  about  twenty  hair-like  bodies 
with  pinkish  enlargements  on  their 
ends,  and  each  of  these  knobs 
seems  to  have  two  parts.  Still 
inside,  is  a  head  of  many  green- 
ish and  pointed  bodies.  We  know 
that  the  whole  thing  is  a  flower, 
but  we  are  uncertain  as  to  what 

(49) 


FIG.  42. 
Floux-r  of   hepatica. 


50 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


parts    are   most   essential   to   it.      A   flower   is   obvi- 
ously a   more    complex   structure   than    a   leaf. 

58.  A  week  or  two  later  the  flower  has  gone, 
and  a  structure  like  that  in  Fig.  43  has  ap- 
peared in  its  place.  We  know  that  in  the  center 
of  this  structure  are  the  seeds.  We  know,  also,  that 
the  three  green  leaves  will  soon  perish,  as  the 
other  parts  have  perished,  and  only 
the  little  plants  which  spring  from 
the  seeds  will  bear  testimony  that 
there  has  been  a  flower.  In  other 
words,  the  purpose  of  a  flower  is 
to  produce  seeds,  by  which  the 
plant  is  perpetuated. 

59.    If    the    above    conclusion    is 
FIG.  43.  true,   it    follows    that    the    most    es- 

After  the  flower  is  sential  or  necessary  parts  of  the 
flower  are  those  which  are  directly 
concerned  in  the  production  of  seeds.  These  parts, 
in  the  hepatica  at  least,  are  the  very  central 
organs.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  if  we  are 
properly  to  understand  the  flower,  we  must  begin 
at  the  center,  not  at  the  outside. 

60.  A  flower  of  the  common  mustard  is  shown 
in  Fig.  44.  Secure  a  flower,  and  count  the  parts. 
The  details  (less  half  of  the  enveloping  leaf -like 
parts)  are  displayed  in  Fig.  45.  The  central 
part,  o,  is  to  make  the  seed -pod.  The  minia- 


WHAT   IS    A    F LOWES? 


51 


ture  seeds  can  be  plainly  distinguished  if  the  part 
is  held  to  the  light.  The  mature  seed -pod  is 
shown  in  Fig.  46.  This  has  grown  to  be  so 
unlike  the  part  0,  that  it  is  scarcely  recognizable 
as  the  same  member.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
for  purposes  of  definition,  to  give  the  part,  as  it 


FIG.  44. 
Flower  of  mustard. 


FIG.  45. 
Details  of  mustard  flower. 


stands    in    the    flower,  a   designative    name.      It    is 
called   the   pistil. 

61.  This   pistil   is    plainly   of    three    parts, — the 
lowest   and     largest    part,    which     bears     the    seeds, 
and   which,    therefore,    we    will    call    the    ovary    (or 
"egg- case");    the  globular  portion  at  the  top,  or  the 
stigma  (that  is,  a   "mark"   or    "brand,"   in  reference 
to    its     shape) ;      the     connecting    portion,    or    style 
(in   reference   to   its    slender   form). 

62.  Surrounding     the    pistil     are     four    slender 


52 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


bodies  with  enlargements  at  the  top.  These  are 
shown  at  1  1,  4  4,  in  Fig.  45.  The  enlargements 
are  seen  to  have  two  parts,  and 
each  part  seems  to  have  split  along 
its  edge.  If  the  pupil  were  to 
rub  one  of  these  enlargements  upon 
a  bit  of  black  paper,  he  would 
probably  discover  a  yellow  dust. 
These  slender  bodies  are  the  sta- 
mens. They  are  plainly  of  two 
parts,  the  stalk,  or  filament,  and 
the  enlargement,  or  anther ;  and 
the  anther  contains  the  yellow  pow- 
der, or  pollen,  of  which  we  have 
spoken. 

63.  There  are  two  rows  of 
leaf -like  parts  surrounding  the 
pistil  and  stamens.  These  are  the 
floral  envelopes,  or,  collectively, 
the  perianth.  The  inner  row  is 
the  colored  or  showy  portion,  or 
corolla.  It  has  four  parts,  and 
these  we  may  call  the  petals.  It  is  suggestive 
to  note  the  similar  forms  of  the  petals  and  sta- 
mens. Both  have  long  stalks  (technically  called 
claws  in  the  petals)  and  .a  more  or  less  expan- 
ded or  enlarged  portion  at  the  top  (the  limb,  in 
the  petals). 


FIG.  46. 

The  seed-pod  of  the 
mustard. 


WHAT    IS    A     FLOWER?     CONCLUDED  53 

64.  The  outer  row  of  the  floral  envelope  or 
perianth  comprises  four  smaller  and  greenish  parts, 
which,  individually,  are  known  as  sepals,  and  col- 
lectively as  calyx.  The  calyx,  corolla  and  stamens 
fall  away  and  perish ;  and  only  the  pistil  matures 
into  another  member. 


XI.        WHAT    IS    A    FLOWER?    CONCLUDED 

65.  If    the   pupil    were    to    cut   off    the    anthers 
before    they    open    and    discharge    the    pollen,    and 
were   then   to   cover   the   flower   with   a    paper   bag, 
or  were   to  remove   all   other   mustard   flowers   from 
the    neighborhood,    the    pistil    would    soon    die    and 
fall.     No    seeds   would    be   borne.       It   is,  therefore, 
certain    that    the    pollen    is    in    some    intimate   way 
associated   with   the   production   of   the   seed. 

66.  If,   however,   having    done    this,    the    pupil 
were   to   bring    pollen   from   another   mustard   flower 
and     deposit    it    upon    the    stigma,    he    would    find 
the    pistil    maturing    and    the    seeds    forming,  as   if 
he   had   not   interfered   with   the   flower.      It   is  evi- 
dent,  therefore,   that   the    office    of   the   pollen   is   to 
cause   production  of    seed   by  some   action   which   it 
exerts  after  it   is  applied   to   the   pistil.     This  action 
upon  the  forming  seed  is  known  as  fertilization  ;    and 
the   transfer   of    the   pollen    to   the   stigma  (whether 


54 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


by  the  wind,  insects,  or  by  man)  is  pollination. 
There  is  a  certain  time  when  the  stigma  is  recep- 
tive, or  ready  to  receive  pollen,  and  this  condi- 
tion comes  when 
the  pistil  is  full 
grown :  the  stigma 
then  becomes  vis- 
cid, or  sticky,  or 
much  roughened, 
as  if  to  hold  the 
pollen.  We  now 
see  that  the  sta- 
mens fall  because 
they  have  per- 
formed their  office ; 
and  the  pistil  per- 
sists that  it  may 
mature  the  seeds.  Since  no  seeds  could  be  pro- 
duced without  the  joint  action  of  pistil  and  sta- 
mens, these  members  are  known  as  the  essential 
organs  of  the  flower. 

67.  If  the  pupil  were  carefully  to  remove  the 
petals  and  sepals,  and  were  then  to  apply  the 
pollen  to  the  stigma,  the  pistil  might  mature  and 
good  seeds  form.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  the 
floral  envelopes  do  not  hold  the  most  vital  rela- 
tion to  the  office  or  purpose  of  the  flower.  They 
are  not  necessarily  essential  to  it, 


FIG.  47. 

Pistillate  flowers  of  willow. 


WHAT   IS    A    FLOWER?    CONCLUDED 


55 


68.  It  so  happens  that  in  the  greater  number 
of  plants  the  pistils  and  stamens  hi  any  flower 
mature  at  different  times.  That  is,  the  pollen  may 
all  be  discharged  before  the  stigma  is  receptive, 
or  the  stigma  may  shrivel  and  die  before  the 
anthers  open.  In  other  words,  there  is  frequently 
only  a  small  chance  of  a  flower  fertilizing  itself. 
There  must  be  some  means,  then,  of  assuring  the 
transfer  of  pollen.  The  commonest  means  are 
wind  and  insects.  The  flower  does  not  need  to 
attract  the  wind,  but  it  must  have  some  means 
of  letting  the  insects  know  where  it  is.  The 
showy  petals  are  perhaps  the  sign -boards.  At  all 
events,  insects  may 
not  visit  some 
flowers  when  the 
petals  are  re- 
moved, although 
they  are  attracted 
by  them  when  the 
petals  are  undis- 
turbed. 


C8«.  This  non- con- 
currence in  maturity  of 
the  .essential  organs  is 
known  as  dichogamy. 


PIG.  48. 
Staminate  flowers  of  willow. 


69.    If    the   pollen   may   be   carried   from   flower 
to    flower,    it    is    not    essential    that    every    flower 


56  flXST  LESSONS     WITH   PLANTS 

have  stamens.  Figs.  47  and  48  are  the  soft 
bodies  which  push  out  from  the  "pussy  willows" 
in  spring.  They  are  really  masses  of  flowers. 
They  are  branches,  since  they  are  borne  in  the 
axil  of  a  bract  or  scale.  The  cluster  in  Fig.  47 
has  members  of  a  single  kind,  a;  and  these  are 
clearly  pistils,  since  they  bear  an  ovary  and  have 
no  pollen  (no  anthers).  The  cluster  in  Fig.  48 
also  has  members  of  a  single  kind,  fr,  but  they 
are  unlike  the  members  of  Fig.  47.  They  are 
stamens,  as  may  be  determined  by  the  pollen  and 
the  filaments,  and  the  absence  of  ovary.  In  both 
cases,  the  parts  have  no  envelopes,  but  are  borne 
in  the  axil  of  a  hairy  or  woolly  scale ;  and  it 
is  this  silky  wool  which  gives  the  name  of  "pussy 
willow"  to  the  plant.  Such  flowers  are  said  to  be 
imperfect,  because  they  have  only  stamens  or  pis- 
tils, in  distinction  to  the  perfect  flowers,  which 
have  both  stamens  and  pistils. 

70.     What,  then,  is    a    flower?     It   is    essentially 
only   a   pistil   or   a   stamen. 

70a.  Since  the  flower  may  have  two  kinds  of  envelopes — and  two 
kinds  of  essential  organs— it  is  commonly  said  that  the  complete  flower 
is  one  which  has  all  of  these  parts,  and  an  incomplete  flower  is  one 
in  which  one  or  more  of  the  series  is  missing;  but  this  is  only  a 
method  of  stating  one's  habit  of  thinking  about  a  flower,  and  it  may 
lead  the  beginner  to  think  that  there  is  some  necessary  or  typical 
plan  of  flower  from  which  most  flowers  are  deviations.  It  would  be 
better  to  drop  the  terms  complete  and  incomplete,  and  to  say  that 


THE    PARTS    OF    THE    PISTIL  57 

flowers  which  have  all  the  four  parts  are  quadriserial ;  those  lacking 
only  the  calyx  are  triserial;  those  lacking  the  floral  envelopes  are  bi- 
serial;  and  those  which  contain  only  the  pistil  are  uniserial. 

706.  It  is  customary,  however,  to  speak  of  flowers  which  lack  the 
calyx  as  asepalous ;  and  of  those  which  lack  the  corolla  as  apetalous. 
When  flowers  lack  both  the  calyx  and  corolla  (as  the  willows),  they 
are  said  to  be  naked,  or  achlamydeous. 

70c.  Flowers  which  contain  pistils  and  no  stamens  are  said  to  be 
pistillate,  or  fertile.  Those  which  have  stamens  and  no  pistils  are 
staminate,  or  sterile.  In  common  language  they  are  sometimes  said  to 
be  female  and  male,  respectively,  but  the  former  terms  are  better 
when  speaking  of  the  parts  as  facts  (or  as  members),  without  refer- 
ence to  sexuality.  When  pistillate  or  staminate  flowers  are  spoken  of 
without  designating  which  they  are,  they  are  properly  said  to  be  di- 
clinous ;  which  is  essentially  the  same  as  to  say  that  they  are  imper- 
fect, as  this  term  is  generally  used.  They  are  sometimes  said,  also, 
to  be  unisexual,  in  distinction  to  bisexual  or  hermaphrodite  flowers 
(which  have  both  stamens  and  pistils). 

70d.  When  speaking  of  the  staminate  portion  alone,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  call  it  the  androecium ;  and  to  call  the  pistillate  portion  the 
gynoecium. 

SUGGESTION. — The  pupil  should  now  have  practice  in  distinguishing 
the  members  or  parts  of  flowers,  and  in  interpreting  the  unusual  or 
disguised  parts. 


XII.      THE    PARTS    OF    THE    PISTIL 

71.  The  pistils  of  hepatica,  mustard,  tulip 
(Fig.  49),  and  willows  are  composed  of  a 
single  straight  column.  The  mustard  and  wil- 
low have  a  distinct  style,  but  the  hepatica  and 
tulip  differ  in  having  none.  That  is,  the  stigma 
is  often  sessile  on  the  ovary,  from  which  we 


58 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


conclude    that     while    the    ovary    and     stigma    are 
essential   to    a   pistil,  the   style   is   not. 

72.  In    all    the   flowers   which   we    have   so   far 

examined  the  style 
is  single ;  that  is, 
there  is  only  one 
straight  style  on  each 
ovary.  In  the  apple, 
however  (Fig.  50), 
the  styles  are  five, 
while  the  ovary  is 
but  one.  The  pupil 
should  now  examine 
any  flowers  which  he 
meets,  with  respect 
to  the  absence  or 
presence  of  styles 
and  to  their  number  ; 
and  he  will  find  va- 
riations from  none 
whatever  to  several , 
or  even  many,  to  a 
single  ovary. 

73.  In    the    hepatica,    mustard    and    apple,    the 
stigma   is   one   for   each   style ;    in    the    tulip    there 
are   three   stigmas  (or   at    least    three    parts   to   one 
stigma) ;    in   the  willow  there   are  two   stigmas,  and 
each   is   again    two-parted,  and   in   the   catnip  (Fig. 


FIG.  49. 
Flowers  of  tulip. 


THE    PARTS    OF    THE    PISTIL 


59 


51)    there  are   two.     These   stigmas   differ   not  only 
in  number,  but    in   size   and    shape.     We   conclude, 


Fm.  50. 
Flowers  of  the  apple. 


therefore,  that  stigmas 
acteristic  forms,  as 
74.  If  we  examine 
tard  (0,  Fig.  45),  we 
comprises  two  distinct 
seeds  in  each.  The 
enlarged  in  the  ma- 
show  their  character 
are  borne  inside  the 
true  of  most  plants), 
compartments  which  we 


have  peculiar  and  char- 
styles  do. 

the  pistil  of  the  mus- 
observe  that  the  ovary 
compartments,  with 
parts  are  sufficiently 
ture  pod  (Fig.  46)  to 
well.  The  seeds,  then, 
ovary  (and  this  is 
in  distinct  cavities  or 
may  call  locules. 


74a.  The  compartments  of  UJ1  ovaries  are  commonly  called 
cells,  but  this  is  a  common-  ^w  language  word,  and  therefore 
has  prior  use  in  general  lit-  FIG.  51.  erature.  If  it  is  used  at  all 
in  botanical  writings,  it  should,  pistn  Of  PernaPs>  be  restricted  to  des- 
ignate the  ultimate  structural  catnip,  elements  or  units  of  the  plant, 


60 


FIRST  LESSORS     WITH  PLANTS 


FIG.  52, 


FIG.  53. 

Cross-section  of 
ovary  of  tulip. 


as     employed     by     anatomists     and    physiologists.        Locule    is     an- 
glicized    from     loculus,    diminutive     of     Latin    IOCHX,  "a    place." 

75.    In    the     hepatica     Figs. 
42,    43),    there   are   several    dis- 
tinct  pistils    in    a   head.       Each 
one  contains  but  a  single  locule, 
and    ripens    but    a    single    seed 
(Fig.    52).       The    pistil    of    the 
Ripened    tuliP>    however    (Fig.    53),     has 
hPepatica.   three  locules,  corresponding  to  as  many  sides 
or    angles.       Pistils    contain    different    num- 
bers of   locules,  according    to  the    kind  of   plant   of 
which   they  are    a   part. 

75a.  Pistils  with  one  locule  are  unilocular  or  1-loculed;  those 
with  two  are  bilocular  or  2-loculed;  those  with  three,  trilocular  or 
3-loculed;  those  with  four,  quadrilocular  or  4-loculed;  those  with 
five,  quinquelocular,  or  5-loculed;  those  with  several  or  many,  mul- 
tilocular,  or  oo-loculed. 

76.  The  ovary  is  not  only  variously  divided 
into  compartments,  but  the  ovules  (or  bodies  which 
mature  into  seeds)  are  attached  to  different  parts 
of  the  locule.  In  the  mustard  they  are  attached 
to  the  central  partition  of  the  ovary,  in  the  tulip 
to  the  interior  walls  of  the  locules,  in  the  corn- 
cockle (Fig.  54)  to  a  columnar  central  portion, 
and  in  the  plum  (Fig.  55,  o)  to  the  outward  side 
of  the  locule.  In  general,  there  is  a  more  or  less 
distinct  elevation  or  thickening  of  tissue  at  the 


THE  PARTS  OF    THE   PISTIL 


61 


place  where  the  ovules  are  attached.  This  is  em- 
phatically shown  in  the  fruit  of  the  May-apple  or 
mandrake  (shown  in 
cross -section  in  Fig. 
56).  This  point  of 
attachment  is  known 
as  the  placenta  (plu- 
ral, placentae). 

76a.  The  placenta  is  de- 
fined with  reference  to  its  po- 
sition. It  is  evident  that 
there  are  two  general  types 
of  placentae, — those  which  are 
borne  upon  the  outward  walls 
of  the  ovary,  and  are  called 
parietal,  and  those  that  are 
borne  in  the  center,  and  are 
called  axile.  Of  the  axile 
placentas,  there  are  two  kinds, 
those  which  are  attached  to 
the  partitions  or  dissepiments 
of  the  ovary  (as  in  the  tulip, 
Fig.  53),  and  those  which 
are  borne  upon  a  separate 
central  column,  and  are,  there- 
fore, called  free  axile  placentae 
(as  in  the  cockle,  Fig.  54, 
and  in  all  the  pink  tribe,  as 
the  pinks,  carnations,  chick- 
weeds,  catchflies;  and  also  in 
the  primroses ) . 


77.    It  is  now  seen 
that    the    pistil    is   not 


FIG.  54. 
Free  axile  placenta  of  corn-cockle 


62 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


always    the    simple    structure   which    it    looks    to    be 
from  the   outside.     That  is,  it  may  be   either  simple 


FIG.  55. 
Flowers  of  plum. 

or  compound.  A  compound  pistil  is  one  which 
bears  evidence  of  containing  two  or  more  united 
parts  or  units.  The  common  test  of  a  compound 
pistil  is  the  presence  of  more  than  one  locule, 

but  this  is  not  always  des- 
ignative,  for  in  some  cases 
false  partitions  grow  out 
from  the  walls  into  the  cav- 
ity of  the  ovary.  The  pres- 
ence of  more  than  one 
style  to  a  single  ovary  also 
indicates  a  compound  pistil; 
and,  more  especially,  the 
occurrence  of  more  than 
one  placenta.  The  separable 
units  or  parts  in  a  compound  pistil  are  known  as 
carpels.  The  theory  of  a  compound  pistil  is  that 


FIG.  56. 

Large  parietal  placenta  of 
may-apple. 


THE   STAMENS  DO 

it   is  made   up   of    the  union  of   two  or  more  simple 
pistils. 

77«.  Thus  the  hepatica  has  one  carpel,  the  tulip  has  three,  the 
mustard  has  two,  the  catnip  has  two  2-lobed  carpels,  the  apple  has 
five,  and  even  the  unilocular  cockle  (Fig.  54)  is  thought  to  be 
5-carpelled  because  of  the  five  styles  (two  being  cut  away  in  the 
figure)  and  of  certain  peculiarities  in  related  plants; — that  is,  there 
is  evidence  that  some  plants  which  were  once  5-loculed  are  now 
1-loculed  because  of  the  loss  of  partitions  ;  and  sometimes  this 
elision  can  be  traced  in  the  different  ovaries  of  a  single  plant. 

776..  A  flower,  therefore,  may  contain  one  simple  pistil,  several 
simple  pistils,  or  one  compound  pistil;  and  there  are  instances  in 
which  it  contains  more  than  one  compound  pistil. 

SUGGESTIONS. — When  taking  up  any  unfamiliar  flower,  look  first 
for  the  pistil.  The  ovary  is  the  best  distinguishing  mark,  for  the 
pistil  is  often  much  disguised.  Determine  what  relation  exists 
between  the  numbers  of  stigmas,  styles,  or  locules  in  any  pistil. 
Also  observe  the  number  of  ovules,  and  the  placentae. 


XIII.      THE    STAMENS 

78.  The  most  striking  feature  of  the  stamens 
in  the  flowers  which  we  have  seen 
is  the  great  difference  in  length  and 
shape.  Most  of  the  stamens  are  slen- 
der, and  have  prominent  stalks  or 
filaments ;  but  the  anthers  of  the 
currant  (Fig.  57)  are  nearly  sessile, 
and  in  some  flowers  they  are  com- 
pletely sessile.  It 


FIG.  5't 


is,    therefore, 


Flower  of  garden 
currant. 


64 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


apparent  that  a  filament  is  not  essential  to  a  stamen 
any   more   than  a  petiole  is  essential  to  a  leaf. 

79.  All  these  an- 
thers appear  (so  far 
as  we  can  see)  to  con- 
tain more  than  one 
cavity.  Most  of  them 
apparently  have  two 
compartments ;  and 
this  is  the  general 
rule.  It  is  easy  to 
ascertain  that  these 
compartments  (which 


FIG.  59. 
Flower  of  wild  lily. 

we  shall  call  lo- 
cules)  contain  the 
pollen  (62). 


79«.    It   is   the    custom 
to   call    the    anther    com- 
partment   a  cell,  but    this 
word      should     be    other- 
wise   employed     (74a).        As  no  confusion  has  arisen   from   the    appli- 
cation   of    the    word    cell    to     both    pistils    and    stamens,    none    may 
be   anticipated    from    a    like    use    of    locule.      It   has  been   suggested 


FIG.  58. 
Stamens  of  water  lily. 


THE    STAMENS 


65 


FIG.  60. 


to  use  locellus  (diminutive  of  loculus)  for  the  anther  compartment, 
but  it  seems  to  be  unnecessary  to  introduce  another  word,  and, 
moreover,  locellus  has  no  accepted  anglicized  form  (although  it  might 
be  shortened  to  locel). 

80.    The    anther  of   the    tulip    and   willow 
is    attached    by    the     base    to     the    very    top 
of    the    filament,  but    that    of     the   water-lily 
(Fig.    58)    seems   to   be   joined    to   the    fila- 
ment  in  its   entire   length.     The  mustard  and 
the    lily  (Fig.    59)  show  still  a  third  method, 
the    anther    being    poised    by   attachment    to 
its    back,    and    standing    cross -wise   the    fila-    Pores  in 
ment.     These   three  methods,  with   numerous      azalea 
intergradations,    will    impress     the     pupil,    if 
he   were    to    examine   numbers   of   flowers,    as    being 
the    types    of     the    ways    in    which    the     anther    is 

borne  upon  the   filament. 

80a.  These  modes  may  be 
called,  respectively,  the  innate 
(attached  at  base),  adnate  (at- 
tached throughout  its  length),  and 
versatile  (attached  near  the  mid- 
dle, or  at  least  at  some  distance 
from  the  ends). 

81.  The  exposure  of 
the  anthers  in  the  mus- 
tard and  the  lily  is  in 

Sensitive  stamens  of  barberry,  show-    opposite     directions.        The 
ing  a  single  flower,  and  the   dehis- 
cence  of  the  anthers  at  a  and  d.  anthers      Of      the 


FIG.  61. 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH   PLANTS 


look  inward  (towards  the  pistil),  or  are  said  to 
be  introrse;  those  of  the  lily  look  outwards,  or 
are  extrorse.  The  pupil  should  determine  if  innate 
and  adnate  anthers  differ  in  this  regard,  also. 


FIG.  62. 
Flower  of  scarlet  sage. 


FIG.  63. 
Parts  of  carnation. 


FIG.  64. 
Stamens  in  hepatica. 


82.  The  anthers  of  the  mustard  and  the  tulip 
seem  to  open  along  the  side  of  each  locule.  The 
azalea,  however  (Fig.  60),  opens  by  a  hole  or 
pore  in  the  tip  of  the  locule.  Heaths  and  huckle- 
berries open  in  the  same  way.  We  should  examine 


THE   STAMENS  67 

the  barberry  (Fig.    61),    in  which  the  anther  opens 
by  means  of  a  lid. 

82a.  The  barberry  flowers  are  honey -sweet,  and  attract  the  bees; 
and  the  plant  seems  to  make  the  most  of  its  opportunity.  When  the 
flowers  are  just  expanded,  and  the  sun  is  warm,  touch  the  filaments 
upon  their  inner  side  with  a  pin  or  point  of  a  pencil.  See  what 
happens.  Observe,  also,  the  curious  way  in  which  the  anthers  open. 
The  pupil  will  now  be  interested  in  the  anthers  of  other  plants  of 
this  family,  such  as  may-apple,  jeffersonia,  and  blue  cohosh. 

82&.  The  opening  of  any  closed  organ  is  known  as  its  de- 
hiscence.  We  have  found,  then,  that  the  dehiscence  of  the  anther 
locules  is  various,  and  that  it  follows  at  least  three  types  or  methods. 

83.  We  have  seen  that  there  are  commonly 
two  locules,  and  hi  the  water-lily  (Fig.  58)  they 
are  separated  by  the  width  of  the  filament.  A 
flower  of  the  scarlet  sage  of  gardens  and  green- 
houses is  laid  open  in  Fig.  62.  The  anthers  are 
at  1  and  2;  but  a  closer  examination  of  the 
anther  shows  that  it  has  but  a  single  locule,  and 
as  other  mints  have  two,  we  are  suspicious  that 
the  other  compartment  has  been  lost.  The  truth 
is  that  in  some  kinds  of  sage  (as  the  common 
garden  sage)  the  two  locules  are  separated  by  a 
stalk  or  bar,  which  runs  crosswise  the  top  of  the 
filament.  This  bar,  separating  the  two  locules  of 
an  anther,  is  called  a  connective.  In  the  flower 
before  us,  the  other  locule  has  apparently  van- 
ished in  the  process  of  time,  and  the  places  where 
we  should  expect  to  find  it  are  at  3  and  4,  on 


68  FlfiST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

the  other  end  of  the  connective.  We  have,  then, 
still  a  fourth  kind  of  anther -bearing,  but  it  is 
clearly  a  special  case  of  versatile  arrangement;  that 
is,  it  is  not  a  general  type  or  mode. 

SUGGESTIONS. — The  presence  of  pollen  is  the  one  infallible  proof 
of  stamens.  The  pollen  is  commonly  in  the  form  of  yellow  grains, 
and  is  easily  recognized  even  by  the  naked  eye.  In  identifying 
stamens,  note  first  the  form  and  dehiscence  of  the  anther,  then  the 
position  of  the  stamen  with  reference  to  other  parts  of  the  flower. 
Find  the  stamens  of  the  apple,  rose,  strawberry,  carnation,  lily, 
crocus,  lilac,  honeysuckle,  verbena,  orange,  fuchsia,  geranium. 


XIV.      THE    DANDELION 

84.  The  first  warmth  of  spring  brought  the 
dandelions  out  of  the  banks  and  knolls.  They 
were  the  first  proofs  that  winter  was  really  going, 
and  we  began  to  listen  for  the  blackbirds  and 
swallows.  We  loved  the  bright  flowers,  for  they 
were  so  many  reflections  of  the  warming  sun. 
They  soon  became  more  familiar,  and  invaded  the 
yards.  Then  they  overran  the  lawns,  and  we 
began  to  despise  them.  We  hated  them  because 
we  had  made  up  our  minds  not  to  have  them,  not 
because  they  were  unlovable.  In  spite  of  every 
effort,  we  could  not  get  rid  of  them.  Then  if  we 
must  have  them,  we  decided  to  love  them.  Where 
once  were  weeds  are  now  golden  coins  scattered 


THE  DANDELION 


89 


FIG.  65. 
Dandelion. 


FIG.  66. 
Floret  of  dandelion. 


in   the    sun,   and    bees    revelling    in    color;     and    we 
are   happy! 

85.  A  dandelion  is  shown  in  Fig.  65.  It  is 
a  strange  flower,  as  measured  by  those  which 
we  have  already  studied.  It  appears  to  have  a 


70  FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

calyx  in  two  parts  or  series,  and  a  great  number 
of  petals.  If  we  look  for  the  pistils  and  stamens, 
however,  we  find  that  the  supposed  simple  flower  is 
really  complex.  Let  us  pull  the  flower  apart  and 
search  for  the  ovary  or  seed.  We  find  numerous 
objects  like  that  in  Fig.  66.  The  young  seed  is 
evidently  at  e.  There  are  two  styles  at  t?,  and  a 
ring  of  five  anthers  at  I.  The  dandelion,  therefore, 
must  be  composed  of  very  many  small  and  perfect 
flowers. 

86.  Looking  for  the  floral   envelopes,  we   find   a 
tube,  and   a   long   strap -like   part   running   off    to   c. 
This  must  be  corolla,  for  the  calyx  is  represented  by 
a   ring  of   soft   bristles,  a.      We   have,  then,  a   head 
made   up    of    quadriserial   flowers,  or   florets,    as   the 
individual   flowers   may  be   called.     The   entire   head 
is   reinforced    by   an  involucre,  in   much  the   method 
in   which   the   dogwood  is   subtended   by    four   petal- 
like    bracts    and   the    calla    spadix    by    a    corolla -like 
spathe. 

87.  One    cloudy    morning    the     dandelions    had 
vanished.      A     search    in    the    grass    revealed    num- 
bers   of    buds,    but    no    blossoms.      Then    an    hour 
or    two    of     sunshine    brought    them     out,    and    we 
learned    that     flowers     often     behave     differently     at 
different    times    of    the    day    and    in    various    kinds 
of  weather. 

88.  In    spite    of   the    most   persistent   work    with 


THE    DANDELION 

the  lawn   mower,   the    dande- 
lions went   to  seed  profusely. 
At  fir^t,  we   cut    off   many  of 
the  flower -heads,  but  a 
the     season      advanced 
they   seemed   to   escape 
us.       They    bent    their 
stems  upon  the  ground 
and  raised  their  heads  gg 
as  high  as  possible  and  ^J§!!! 

s'*''f- ;'-'.'-'''''  '''''-A 

yet  not  fall  victims  J5^| 
to  the  machine ;  and  ^ 
presently  they  shot 
up  their  long  soft 
stems  and  scattered 
their  tiny  balloons  to 
the  wind,  and  when  the 
lawn-mower  passed, 
they  were  either  ripe 
or  too  high  to  be 
caught  by  the  machine. 
89.  This  seed  has 
behaved  strangely  in 
the  meantime.  The 
fringe  of  pappus  (as 
the  bristle -like  calyx 
is  called)  is  'raised 
above  the  seed  by 

FIG.  67. 
The  dandelion 


FIG.  68. 

Variation  in  dandelion  leaves.     All  drawn  natural  si/e  and  then 
reduced  one-half. 


THti  DANDELION  73 

a  short,  narrow  neck  (e,  Fig.  66),  when  the  plant 
is  in  flower;  but  at  seed-time  this  neck  has 
grown  an  inch  long  (Fig.  67),  the  anthers,  styles 
and  corolla  have  perished,  the  pappus  has  grown 
into  a  spreading  parachute,  and  the  ovary  has 
elongated  into  a  hard,  seed -like  body.  Each  one 
of  us  has  blown  the  tiny  balloons  from  the  white 
receptacle,  and  has  watched  them  float  away  to 
settle  point  downwards  in  the  cool  grass;  but  per- 
haps we  had  not  always  associated  these  balloon 
voyages  with  the  planting  of  the  dandelion. 

90.  The  dandelion,  then,  has  many  curious 
habits.  It  belongs  to  the  great  class  of  composi- 
tous  (or  compound)  flowers,  which,  with  various 
forms,  comprises  about  one -tenth  of  all  the  flow- 
ering plants  of  the  earth.  The  structure  of  these 
plants  is  so  peculiar  that  a  few  technical  terms 
must  be  used  to  describe  them.  The  entire 
"flower"  is  really  a  head,  composed  of  florets,  and 
surrounded  by  an  involucre.  These  florets  are  borne 
upon  a  so-called  receptacle.  The  plume -like  down 
upon  the  seeds  is  the  pappus.  The  anthers  are 
said  to  be  syngenesious  ("in  a  ring"),  because 
united  in  a  tube  about  the  style;  and  this  struc- 
ture is  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  composi- 
tous  flowers, — more  designative  of  them,  in  fact, 
than  the  involucrate  head,  for  in  some  other  kinds 
of  plants  the  flowers  are  in  such  heads,  and  in 


74  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

some    compositous    flowers    the    florets    are    reduced 
to    two   or   three,  or   even   to   one! 

SUGGESTIONS.— Is  the  bud  at  the  right  in  Fig.  (J7  a  flower 
closed  up,  or  one  which  has  not  yet  opened  ?  Are  the  stems  of 
the  dandelions  which  bloom  first  in  the  spring  shorter  than  those 
which  bloom  later  ?  Do  the  flowers  close  at  night  and  in  dull  weather  ? 
How  long  a  period  of  sunshine  is  necessary  to  open  the  flowers  ? 
Does  a  flower  open  more  than  once  ?  Does  the  head  (or  involucre) 
ever  close  up  after  it  has  gone  to  seed  ?  What  time  is  required 
for  the  flower  stem  to  straighten  up  and  to  reach  its  full  height  ? 
How  many  rows  of  bracts  or  scales  are  in  the  involucre  ?  Do  the 
positions  of  these  bracts  change  from  flowering-time  to  seeding- 
time  ?  How  far  may  a  dandelion  seed  travel  in  the  wind  ?  Do 
dandelion  plants  vary  much  in  size  and  shape  of  leaves  (compare 
Fig.  68  j?  Is  the  variation  associated  with  vigor  of  plant,  richness 
and  moisture  of  soil,  or  other  conditions  ?  At  what  seasons  are 
dandelions  most  abundant  ?  Do  they  ever  bloom  in  fall  or  winter  ? 
How  long  does  a  dandelion  plant  live  I  Upon  what  kind  of  soil 
does  it  thrive  be'st  ? 


XV.     CROSS  -  FERTILIZATION 

91.  We  have  found  (58)  that  the  purpose  of 
the  flower  is  to  produce  seeds ;  these  seeds  can- 
not be  formed  without  the  aid  of  pollen;  compara- 
tively few  flowers  are  perfect  and  also  synanthous 
(or  simultaneous)  in  the  maturation  of  pistils  and 
stamens,  and  very  many  flowers  are  imperfect. 
It  would  seem  to  follow,  therefore,  that  cross -fer- 
tilization is  the  rule,  and  we  infer  that  it  must 
result  in  some  decided  benefit. 

92.     The    simplest   means    by  which  cross -fertili- 
zation is   enforced   is   by  dichogamy,  or  the  different 


CROSS-FERTILIZA  TION  75 

times     of    maturing    of    the    organs    of    the     same 

flower    (680).       Certain   simple  movements   or  habits 

of  the   pistils   or  stamens   are   often  associated   with 

dichogamy.      Fig.  69    is  a  flower 

of  one  of  the  wild  phloxes.     The 

stigmas  are  seen  to  be  three,  but 

these    are    closed    until    the    stig- 

matic  surfaces  are  receptive,  which 

commonly  occurs    after   the    pollen 

is  discharged.     A  similar   behavior 

may  be  detected  in  campanulas  or 

blue -bells.     In   the   young  flowers 

the  style  is  merely  club-shaped;    in 

the  oldest    flowers,   the    style    has 

opened   to  three   branches,  but  the  FlG-  69- 

anthers   are   shrivelled.      Inasmuch  Dichogamous  flower  of 

as  the   period  of   blooming  of   any 

plant    usually   extends    over    several    days   at    least, 

the  dichogamous    flower   is   likely   to   receive    pollen 

from   various   flowers   which    are   borne   either   upon 

the    same    or   another   plant. 


D'2a..  Pistils  of  dichogamous  flowers  may  accidentally  receive 
pollen  from  the  same  flower;  but  Darwin  and  others  have  found 
that  pollen  is  often  impotent,  or  sterile,  upon  the  associated  stigmas. 
That  is,  if  pollen  from  the  same  and  from  another  flower  were 
to  fall  upon  a  stigma,  the  foreign  pollen  is  the  more  likely  to  be 
fecund.  Foreign  pollen  is  commonly  prepotent.  If,  however,  no 
pollen  is  received  from  another  flower,  the  stigma  may  accept  the 
pollen  from  the  associated  anthers. 


76  FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

93.  It   is   evident   that   if   self-fertilization  is  so 
often    excluded,    the    plant    must    frequently   depend 
upon    extraneous    agents    for   the    transfer    of    pollen 
and   the    perpetuation    of   its   kind. 

94.  If    the   pupil  were   to    shake   the    staminate 
catkins    of    the    hazel,    birch    or    walnut    when    they 
are  mature,  he  would  be  surprised  at  the  showers  of 
pollen   which    are    discharged ;      and     if    he     should 
watch     the     destination    of     this     pollen     he     would 
probably  see   that  some  of   it  chances  to   drop  upon 
the   pistillate    flowers.      He    may   make    similar    ob- 
servations   with    Indian     corn     and     staminate     pine 
cones.      A    common    agent   in   distributing   pollen   is 
the  wind.      Plants    which    bear    protruding    feathery 
stigmas    and    protruding    stamens    (as    the    grasses) 
are     generally    wind -pollinated.       So    are    many    or 
most    dioecious    or   monoecious   plants. 

95.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  fact     (68) 
that    the     showy    petals    sometimes    attract    insects. 
The  insects  are  also  attracted  by  odors,  as  one  may 
infer   by   watching    the    visits    of   moths    to    the   pe- 
tunias   at   nightfall,  at   which   time   the    flowers  give 
forth   their   odor.      We   would   infer,    therefore,   that 
those    flowers   which  have   neither  showy   colors    nor 
odors   must    be    pollinated    by   the   wind;    and    this 
is   true,  as   a   general   statement. 

95a.  Plants  habitually  pollinated  by  the  wind  are  said  to  be 
anemophilous  ("wind-loving"),  and  those  pollinated  by  insects  en- 
tomophilous  ("  insect  -loving"), 


CROSS  FERTILIZA  TION 


77 


956.  Since  the  publication  of  Darwin's  remarkable  investigations 
upon  the  inter-relations  of  flowers  and  insects,  it  has  been  com- 
monly supposed  that  the  showy  colors  of  flowers  have  been  de- 
veloped, or  have  originated,  as  a  means  of  attracting  insects,  but 
this  explanation  of  the  origin  of  colored  parts  is  open  to  doubt. 
But  whatever  the  evolution  of  the  corolla  may  have  been,  it  is  known 
that  color  and  perfume  often  attract  insects. 

96.  It    is   evident    that 
the   insect   would   not    visit 
the   flower   for   the   flower's 
sake,  but   for  its  own  sake. 
There    must    be    something 
in  the  flower  which  it  wants, 
for  color  and   odor  are  only 
attractions,    not    substantial 
rewards.     The  things  which 
the    insect    wants    are    nec- 
tar (or   honey)  and   pollen, 
chiefly   the   former. 

97.  A    flower    of     the 
columbine  (often  erroneously 

called  honeysuckle)  is  shown  in  Fig.  70.  The 
petals  are  produced  into  long  spurs.  If  one  of 
these  spurs  were  opened  when  the  flower  is  in 
full  bloom,  the  bottom  of  it  would  be  found  to 
contain  a  glistening  secretion.  This  is  the  nec- 
tar; and  the  spurs  are,  therefore,  nectaries. 


FIG.  70. 
Flower  of  columbine. 


97 a.     Humming-birds   are   fond   of   sipping  the   nectar   from  the 
columbine,   for    which    their    long    bills    are    eminently    fitted.      Bees 


78 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


also  crowd  into  the  tubes.  Bumble-bees  often  bite  open  the  nec- 
taries and  steal  the  honey  from  the  outside;  this  kind  of  theft  is 
not  infrequent  in  other  flowers. 

98.    The  pupil  should 
now     examine      any    of 
the         buttercups,         or 
crowfoots.        The     com- 
mon   one    in    the    East 
is    shown    in     Fig.     71. 
If   the  petals  are    pulled 
away,    each    one    is    seen     to 
bear    a    minute   gland    or    lip 
(b)    at    its     base.        This     is 
the   nectary.        The    disk- like 
base    of    the    common     grape 
flower  is   also   a  nectary.     As 
a  rule,  entomophilous    flowers 
bear  nectaries,  or  nectar- bear- 
ing glands,  and   they  are  usu- 
ally located    in    the  very   base 
or  bottom  of  the  flower. 

SUGGESTIONS.— The  pupil  should  now 

Flowers  of  common  iook    for     the    nectaries    in   all    flowers 

buttercup.  which    he    suspects    to   be    insect-polli- 

nated.      The     presence    of     spurs     and 

sacs,  and  also  of  glands,  is  presumptive  evidence  of  nectaries. 
The  presence  of  insects  about  flowers  always  raises  the  presump- 
tion that  those  flowers  are  entomophilous  ;  the  pupil  should,  there- 
fore, determine  what  visitors  the  common  flowers  may  have, 


IV.    PROPAGATION    AND    HABITS 


XVI.   HOW  A  SQUASH  PLANT  GETS  OUT  OF 

THE  SEED 

99.  The  culmination  of  the  activities 
of  the  plant  is  the  propagation  of  it- 
self. To  this  end  the  devious  life- 
history,  the  mechanisms  of  the 
flowers,  the  varieties  and  pecu- 
liarities of  the  fruits,  are  sub- 
ordinate. The  supreme  effort 
of  the  plant  —  if  one  may  so 
speak  — is  its  perpetuation.  The 
most  important  vehicle  of  this 
perpetuation,  in  most  higher 
plants,  is  the  seed. 

100.    If    one    were    to    plant 
seeds  of   a   Hubbard   or   Boston       FIG.  73. 
Marrow  squash   in    loose,    warm  Squash  plant 

. ,  .,        which      has 

earth    in    a     pan    or    box,    and     brought  the 
were   then   to  care  for   the   par-     seed  - coats 

Squash  plant  out   of    the 

a  week  old.     eel    for   a    week    or    ten    days,     ground. 

(79) 


80 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


beginning. 


and  peg. 


he  would  be  rewarded  by  a  colony  of  plants  like 
that  shown  in  Fig.  72.  If  he  had  not  planted 
the  seeds  himself,  or  had 
not  seen  such  plants  before, 
he  would  not  believe  that 
these  curious  plants  would 
ever  grow  into  squash  vines, 
so  different  are  they  from  the  vines  which  we 
know  in  the  garden.  This,  itself,  is  a  most 
interesting  fact, — this  wonderful  difference  between 
the  first  and  the  later  stages  of  all  plants,  and  it 
is  only  because  we  know  it  so  well  that  we  do 
not  wonder  at  it. 

101.    It    may  happen,  however,  that    one    or    two 
of   the  plants  may  look 
like  that  shown  in  Fig. 
73.       Here     the     seed 
seems  to  have  come  up 
on    top    of     the    plant, 
and  one  is  reminded  of  the  curious 
way   in  which    beans   come  up    on 
the    stalk    of    the     young     plant. 
We  are    desirous    to    know  why   one 
of     these    squash    plants    brings    its 
seed    up    out     of    the    ground    while 
all    the    others   do   not.      We    shall   ask    the   plant. 
We    may   first    pull   up    the   two    plants.      The    first 
one    (Fig.    72)  will   be  seen   to   have   the  seed -coats 


HOW  A    SQUASH  PLANT   GETS    OUT   OF   THE   SEED       81 


still  attached  to  the  very  lowest  part  of  the  stalk, 
below  the  soil,  but  the  other  plant  has  no  seed 
at  that  point. 

102.    We   will   now   plant  more 
seeds — a  dozen  or  more  of  them — 
so  that   we  shall   have  enough  for 
examination    two    or    three    times 
a    day   for  several   days.      A   day 
or  two  after  the  seeds  are  planted, 
we  shall  find  a  little  point  or  root- 
like  portion   breaking  out   of   the  sharp  end 
of   the  seed,  as  shown  in    Fig.  74.      A  day 
later,  this  portion  has  grown  to    be  as  long 
as   the    seed    itself    (Fig.    75),  and   it    has 
turned    directly  downward   into   the  soil. 

103.  There  is  another  most  curious  thing 
about  this  germinating  seed.  Just  where  the 
root  is  breaking  out  of  the  seed  (shown 
at  a  in  Fig.  75),  there  is  a  little  peg 
or  projection.  In  Fig.  76,  about  a 
day  later,  the  root  has  grown  still 
longer,  and  this  peg  seems  to  be  forc- 
ing the  seed -coats  apart.  In  Fig.  77, 
however,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
are  really  being  forced  apart  by  the  stem  or 
stalk  above  the  peg,  for  this  stem  is  now  grow- 
ing longer.  The  lower  lobe  of  the  seed  has  at- 
tached to  the  peg  (seen  at  a,  Fig.  77),  and  the 


seed  -coats 


82 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


FK;.  80. 


seed -leaves    are  backing  out  of    the  seed.     Fig.    78 
shows    the    seed    a   day  later.      The   root    has   now 
produced  many  branches,  and   has  thor- 
oughly  established     itself    in    the    soil. 
The    top    is    also    growing   rapidly,  and 
is    still    backing   out    of     the    seed,  and 
the    seed -coats   are  still   firmly   held   by 
The  plant  lib-      the    obstinate   peg. 

eTeeeddfco°a^he  104'  In  the  meantime,  the  plant- 
lets  which  we  have  not  disturbed  have 
been  coming  through  the  soil.  If  we  were  to  see 
the  plant  in  Fig.  78  as  it  was  "coming  up,"  it 
would  look  like  Fig.  79.  It  is  tugging  away  try- 
ing to  get  its  head  out  of  the  bonnet  which  is 
pegged  down  underneath  the  soil.  In 
Fig.  80  it  has  escaped  from  its  trap. 
It  must  now  straighten  itself  up,  as  it 
is  doing  in  Fig.  81,  and  it  is  soon 
standing  stiff  and  straight,  as  in  Fig. 

72.  We    now  see    that   the    reason  why 
the  seed  came  up  on  the  plantlet   in  Fig. 

73,  is    because   in    some    way    the    peg 

did    not    hold    the    seed -coats   down  (see       pio  81 
Fig.   84) ,     and   the   expanding   leaves  are     The  plant 
pinched     together,    and     they    must    get  straightening 
themselves   loose   as   best   they  can. 

105.    There    is    another   thing    about    this    squash 
plant  which    we    must   not   fail    to    notice,   and    this 


HOW  A    SQUASH  PLANT  GETS   OUT  OF   THE   SEED      83 

is  the  fact  that  these  first  two  leaves  came  out  of  the 
seed,  and  did  not  grow  out  of  the  plantlet  itself.  We 
must  notice,  too,  that  these 
leaves  are  much  smaller 
when  they  are  first  drawn 
out  of  the  seed  than  they  are 
when  the  plantlet  has  straightened  it- 
self up.  That  is,  these  leaves  increase 
in  size  after  they  reach  the  light  and  air. 
106.  The  roots  are  now  established 
in  the  soil,  and  are  taking  in  food 
which  enables  the  plantlet  to  grow. 
The  next  leaves  which  appear  (Fig.  True  leaves. 
82)  are  very  different  from  these  first  or  seed 
leaves.  They  grow  out  of  the  little  plant  itself. 
The  picture  shows  these  true  leaves  as  they  appear 
on  a  young  Crookneck  squash  plant,  and  the  plant 

now    begins    to    look    much    like    a 

squash    vine. 

106a.     The    leaves  which   are   borne    in    the 
Marking        seed   are  the   cotyledons    or    seed-leaves.     Their 
the  root.        enlargement,  after  sprouting,  is  largely  or  wholly 
at   the  expense  of    the  nutriment  which  is  stored 
up   in   the   seed.     The   true    leaves    (Fig.    82)    appear   as 
soon  as  the  plantlet   begins  to  gather  materials  for  itself. 
Germination  is  not  complete  until  the  plantlet  has  thoroughly 
D    established   itself   in  the   soil,  and    the   true   leaves   have 
begun   to  appear.      The    plantlet   then    becomes  a    plant. 
The  earlier  part  of  the  germinating  process  may  be  called  sprouting. 
1066.     The    incipient    shoot    which    gives    rise    to     the     growth 


84 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


above  the    cotyledons    (and    which,    as   we    shall    see,    is    present    in 
the   seed)  is   the  plumule.      The   plumule   is   really   a  bud. 

107.  We  are  now  curious  to  know  how  the 
stem  grows  when  it  backs  out  of  the  seed  and 
pulls  the  little  seed-leaves  with 
it,  and  how  the  root  grows  down- 
wards into  the  soil.  Pull  up 
another  seed  when  it  has  sent  a 
single  root  about  two  inches  deep 
into  the *  earth.  Wash  it  very 
carefully  and  lay  it  upon  a  piece 
of  paper.  Then  lay  a  rule  along- 
side  of  it,  and  make  an  ink  mark 
one -quarter  of  an  inch,  or  less, 
from  the  tip,  and  two  or  three 
other  marks  at  equal  distances 
above  (Fig.  83).  Now  carefully 
replant  the  seed.  Two  days  later, 
dig  it  up;  we  shall  most  likely 
find  a  condition  something  like 
that  in  Fig.  84.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  marks  E,  C,  B,  are  practically  the  same 
distance  apart  as  before,  and  they  are  also  the 
same  distance  from  the  peg,  A  A.  The  point  of 
the  root  is  no  longer  at  D  D,  however,  but  has 
moved  on  to  F.  The  root,  therefore,  has  grown 
almost  wholly  in  the  end  portion. 


Km.  84. 


the 


HOW  A    SQUASH  PLANT  GETS   OUT   OF   THE    SEED       85 


107a.  Common  ink  will  not  answer  for  this  purpose  because  it 
"runs"  when  the  root  is  wet,  but  indelible  ink,  used  for  marking 
linen  or  for  drawing,  should  be  used.  It  should  also  be  said  that 
the  roots  of  the  common  pumpkin  and  of  the  summer  bush  squashes 
are  too  fibrous  and  branchy  for  this  test. 

1076.  It  should  be  stated  that  the  root  does  not  grow  at  its 
very  tip,  but  chiefly  in  a  narrow  zone  just  back  of  the  tip  ;  but 
the  determination  of  this  point  is  rather  too  difficult  for  the  be- 
ginner, and,  moreover,  it  is  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this  lesson. 

108.  Now  let  us  make  a  similar  experiment 
with  the  stem  or  stalk.  Mark  a  young  stem,  as 

at  A  in  Fig.  85,  but  the 
next  day  we  shall  find  that 
these  marks  are  farther 
apart  than  when  we  made 
them  (B,  Fig.  85).  The 
marks  have  all  raised  them- 
selves above  the  ground  as 
the  plant  has  grown.  The 
stem,  therefore,  has  grown 
throughout  its  length  rather 
than  from  the  end.  The 
stem  usually  grows  most 
rapidly,  at  any  given  time, 
in  the  upper  or  younger 
portion  ;  but  the  part  soon 


growth  and  becomes  sta- 
tionary, and  the  growth  continues  beyond  it.  (See 
"Suggestions,"  p.  23). 


86 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


SUGGESTIONS. — All  this  behavior  of  the  germinating  squash  re- 
sults in  raising  the  foliage  above  the  soil  and  in  keeping  the  seed- 
coats  beneath  it.  But  suppose  that  the  seed  is  not  buried,  but  lies 
on  the  surface  of  the  moist  earth,  or  is  covered  only  with  loose 
leaves  or  litter  :  then  what  happens  ?  Fill  a  pot  or  box  with  earth 
up  to  half  an  inch  below  the  rim,  lay  fresh  squash  seeds  upon  it, 
cover  the  pot  with  cardboard  and  keep  the  seeds  moist  and  warm. 
Watch  the  result.  Peas  germinate  in  this  way  very  readily. 


XVII.       GERMINATION    OF    BEANS 

109.    Plant    a  few  common   beans   and  watch   the 
germination.      The   plantlets    back    out    of    the    soil 

much  as  the  squash 
does,  and  the  coty- 
ledons, a,  Fig.  86, 
are  elevated  into  the 
air.  These  cotyledons 
remain  practically  the 
same  size  as  they  were 
in  the  seed,  however, 
and  do  not  become 
conspicously  green 
and  leaf -like. 

FlG-8G-  FIG-87  110.    At    the    same 

Germination  of  Germination  of          ^  j       t  ^  f 

common  bean.  Scarlet  Runner  bean. 

the  Scarlet  Runner  or 

White    Dutch    Runner   bean.      The    first   foliar   parts 
to    appear    are    true     leaves    (Fig.    87),  and   if    the 


GERMINATION  OF  BEANS  87 

plant  be  dug  up,  the  cotyledons  will  be  found  to 
have  remained  under  the  ground.  Observe  care- 
fully at  what  point  the  roots  start  out  from  the 
seed. 

111.  There   are,  then,  two   types   of    germination 
as   respects   the  position  of   the  cotyledons.     In  one 
type,   the     seed-leaves    rise    above    ground,    or    the 
germination   is   epigeal  ("above  the  earth");    in  the 
other,  they  remain  where   the    seed  was   planted,  or 
the   germination   is   hypogeal  ("below  the   earth"). 

Ilia.  The  pupil  should  make  a  careful  comparison  of  the  dif- 
ferences in  germination  between  the  two  types  of  beans  mentioned 
above.  He  may  profitably  add  a  third  factor  to  the  experiment 
by  including  the  garden  pea.  If  he  has  access  to  oak  trees,  he 
may  watch  the  germination  of  the  acorns  as  they  lie  upon  the 
ground  in  very  early  spring.  Examine  horse-chestnuts. 

112.  Measure  the  beans  before  they  are  planted, 
taking  the  length,  width  and  thickness.     If   delicate 
balances    or    scales    are    at  hand,  it  may  be  well   to 
weigh   them,   also.      Then    observe    the    increase    in 
size     of     the    beans.       Is     this    swelling     associated 
with   heat    or    moisture,    or   both?      The    pupil    can 
answer    this    question    by    planting    some    seeds    in 
dry,    warm    earth    and    others    in   moist,    cool    earth 
(which     is    kept     little     above     freezing),    and     by 
otherwise  varying  the  experiment.     Do  dead  seeds— 
those    which    are    veiy    old    or    which     have    been 
baked  —  swell   when   planted?       The    pupil   will   find 


88  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

that  the   swelling   of    the   seed   is    the   first   obvious 
stage   in   germination. 

113.  Plant   beans    in    moist    cotton    or    sawdust, 
or   lay  them   in   folds   of   heavy,  damp    cloth.     How 
far    will    the     sprouting    progress!      Will    the    first 
true   leaves  develop!     In  other  words,  for  how  long 
can    the    plantlet    grow    upon    the    nutriment   which 
is   stored   in   the   seed! 

114.  When   the   true   leaves   have   begun    to    de- 
velop   (as    in    Figs.  86    and    87),   carefully    lift    the 
plant,  with   the    soil   which    is    attached,    and    then, 
in   a   basin,  wash    away   the    earth    until    the    roots 
are  white   and  clean.     Then,  by  the    aid   of   a   lens 
or   by  holding   the   roots   to   the  light,  see  the  cov- 
ering   of    very    fine    hairs    upon    the    roots.      It    is 
these   little   organs  which    hold    most    of    the    earth 
on    the    roots    when    the    plant    is    carefully    pulled 
up.      They  are   the   root -hairs,  and   they  are   active 
agents   in   absorbing   food. 

114a.  Several  profitable  lessons  may  be  made  in  the  study  of 
the  root-hairs  of  whatever  seedling  plants  may  be  at  hand  in 
gardens  or  elsewhere.  How  soon  after  germination  do  they  appear  ? 
Do  they  persist  as  the  root  becomes  old,  or  are  they  shed  upon 
the  older  parts  ?  Do  full-grown  or  large  plants  have  root -hairs  ? 
Look  for  them  on  the  very  youngest  parts  of  the  roots.  When 
seeds  are  germinated  as  reeommeuded  in  113  and  p.  86,  the  root- 
hairs  are  much  more  readily  seen. 

115.  We    know    that    roots    go    downwards    and 
stems    go  upwards.      How    soon    is     this    difference 


GERMINATION  OF  BEANS  89 

manifested  in  the  germinating  bean?  Do  the  two 
parts  take  these  opposite  directions  even  when  the 
beans  germinate  in  a  dark  place?  We  shall  find 
that  there  is  an  inherent,  or  inborn,  tendency  for 
the  root  to  grow  down  and  the  stem  to  grow  up. 

115a.  The  discussion  of  the  physiological  causes  which  have 
determined  this  differentiation  between  the  root  and  stem  is  not 
germane  to  this  book  ;  although  it  may  be  said  that  gravitation 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  movements.  For  the  purpose  of 
designating  some  of  these  facts  or  phenomena,  the  words  geotropism 
and  heliotropism  have  been  used, —  the  former  designating  move- 
ment into  or  towards  the  earth,  and  the  latter  movement  towards 
the  light. 

SUGGESTIONS.— The  pupil  should  make  these  tests  with  beans. 
He  will  find  other  interesting  points,  if  he  watches  the  process  of 
germination  closely.  When  some  of  the  seeds  have  produced  straight 
roots  an  inch  or  so  long,  remove  them  carefully  and  hang  them 
with  the  root  uppermost  in  a  moist  and  warm  atmosphere,  as  under 
a  bell -jar  or  inverted  glass  bowl  which  is  set  in  water.  Observe 
how  the  roots  tend  to  turn  downwards  and  the  plumule  to  turn 
upwards.  Or,  sprouting  seeds  may  be  placed  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion. It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  the  root  gets  around  stones 
and  other  hard  objects  in  the  soil.  The  roots  of  any  plant  which 
grows  in  very  stony  or  hard,  gravelly  soil  are  good  subjects  for 
observation.  Radishes  are  also  interesting  for  germinating  studies; 
and  they  show  heliotropism  quickly  and  emphatically  when  growing 
where  the  light  all  comes  from  one  direction,  as  from  a  side 
window. 

The  beans  may  be  planted  in  pans  or  boxes  which  are  set  in 
the  windows  of  the  school -room,  although  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  soil  does  not  become  too  dry  if  it  is  exposed  directly 
to  the  sun.  Handframes,  or  bell-glasses,  will-  be  found  to  be  use- 
ful with  which  to  make  germination  studies.  The  pupil  usually 
takes  more  interest  in  the  experiments,  however,  if  he  has  them 
constantly  under  his  eye.  Perhaps  each  pupil  can  be  provided 


90  FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

with  a  small  flower-pot,  or  other  dish,  or  even  with  a  cigar-box, 
and  be  allowed  to  have  it  upon  his  desk.  If  vthe  elongation  of 
the  parts  is  to  be  watched  very  closely,  and  especially  if  the  root 
is  to  be  marked  in  order  to  observe  its  method  of  growth  C107, 
107a),  the  seeds  may  be  germinated  between  damp  blotting  papers. 
If  a  dozen  or  more  seeds  are  started,  a  record  may  be  kept  of  the 
various  stages  in  germination  by  pressing  the  plants,  as  well  as 
by  drawing  them. 


XVIII.     WHAT    IS    A    SEED? 

116.  The  two  most  important  characteristics  of 
seeds  we  have  already  learned, — the  facts  that 
they  are  the  result  of  the  fertilization  of  the 
ovule  by  a  pollen  grain,  and  that  they  con- 
tain a  miniature  plant.  This 
condensed  and  miniature  plant 
in  the  seed  is  called  the  embryo. 
The  phenomena  of  fertilization 

FIG.  88. 

are    too    obscure    to    be    clearly     „,. 

J         The  parts  of  a  bean  seed. 

understood,     much     less    to     be 

seen,    by  the    beginner  ;     but   it    may   be    said  that 

the     nucleus    of    the    pollen -grain    unites    with  the 

nucleus    of    the    egg- cell     in    the    embryo -sac,  and 
the   result   of    this    union    is    the    embryo. 

117.    Let    us  return   to   the    bean.       In   the  ripe 
pod     the      beans     are     seen     to     be     attached     by 

short     stalks    to     the    edge    of    each    valve.  The 


WHAT  IS  A    SEED? 


91 


stalk    is   called,  in   all    seeds,  the    funiculus.     When 
the     funiculus     breaks     away     from     the     seed,    it 

leaves  a  scar  (D, 
Fig.  88) .  This  scar 
is  the  hilum. 

118.  If  we  split 
the  bean  length- 
wise (preferably 
after  it  has  been 
soaked  in  water 
for  a  few  hours), 
we  find  that  the 
seed  is  composed  of 
two  thick  cotyledons ; 
and  these  are  the 
parts  which  are 
afterwards  elevated 
into  the  air  (a,  Fig.  86).  One-half  of  a  bean 
(that  is,  one  cotyledon)  is  shown  in  Fig.  88.  The 
other  cotyledon  was  attached  at  C.  The  plumule 
is  at  S,  and  the  incipient  stem,  or  caulicle,  at 
O.  All  these  parts  —  cotyledons,  caulicle,  plumule, 
—  constitute  the  embryo. 

118a.  Over  the  point  of  the  caulicle,  the  close  observer  will 
find  a  minute  depression  and  a  hole  leading  into  the  bean.  This 
is  the  micropyle,  and  is  the  point  at  which  the  pollen-tube  en- 
tered, and  the  place  through  which  the  root  breaks  in  germination. 
In  the  cocoa-nut  the  positions  of  the  three  micropyles  are  shown 
by  the  scars  (Fig.  89),  but  since  only  one  of  the  locules  develops 
a  seed,  germination  takes  place  through  only  one  place. 


FIG.  89. 
Micropylar  scars  of  cocoa-nut. 


92 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


FIG.  90. 
Parts  of  common  bean. 


119.  We  are  now  curious  to  know  if  there  is 
anything  in  the  structure  of  the  embryos  to 
suggest  the  different  behaviors  of 
the  two  beans  in  Figs.  86  and 
87.  Fig.  90  shows  the  coty- 
ledons of  a  common  bean  laid 
open;  and  Fig.  91  is  a  simi- 
lar picture  of  the  Scarlet  Run- 
ner bean.  The  node,  or  place 
of  attachment  of  the  cotyledons, 
is  at  C  (one  cotyledon,  of  course, 
having  been  broken  away).  The 
caulicles  are  the  parts  pointing 
downwards,  and  the  two  leaves  of  the  plumule  lie 
at  the  left.  The  observer  will  see  that  the  space 
between  C  and  the  plumule 
is  very  different  in  the  two 
beans.  These  different 
lengths  are  suggestive  of 
what  takes  place  in  germi- 
nation,—the  greatest  elon- 
gation of  the  stem  in  the  iij 
common  bean  takes  place  | 
beneath  the  cotyledons,  ' 
whereas  the  greatest  elon- 

!•  •         j-i          o         i    i.    T»  Parts  of  Scarlet  Runner  bean. 

gation  in   the    Scarlet  Run- 
ner  takes   place  above   the   cotyledons:    in   one  case 
the  caulicle  elongates,   in  the  other  it  does  riot. 


WHAT  18  A    SEED?  93 

119a.  The  internode  lying  above  the  point  of  attachment  of 
the  cotyledons — between  the  cotyledons  and  the  plumule — is  called 
the  epicotyl;  that  below  the  cotyledons  is  the  hypocotyl.  The 
hypocotyl  was  formerly  called  the  radicle,  upon  the  supposition 
that  it  is  an  incipient  root;  but  it  is  a  stem  (except,  perhaps, 
the  very  tip),  and  the  root  develops  from  its  end. 

120.   The   embryos   of   the   squash   and   bean   oc- 
cupy    the    whole     interior    of    the    seed,    and    the 
nutriment     which     sustains     the     sprouting 
plantlet    is    stored    in    the   cotyledons.       In 
the    onion    it    is   not    so.       Fig.    92     is    a 

FIG.  92.  .  e 

section   of    an   onion   seed.     The  monocoty- 

Sectionof  . 

seed,  ledonous  embryo  is  coiled  up  in  a  mass 
of  starchy  matter;  and  a  similar  condition 
is  seen  in  the  buckwheat  (Fig.  93). 
Nutritive  material  stored  outside  the  em- 
bryo is  called  the  endosperm. 

FIG.  93.  120a.     The  endosperm  varies   greatly  in    quantity  and 

Section  of     in  physical    and    chemical    character.     In  many   plants,  as 

buckwheat    the    cereal    grains,  it    affords  most   of    the  material    which 

seed.          is   utilized   for  human  food.     In  the  cocoa-nut  only  a  part 

of    the    liquid   matter    solidifies    into    endosperm,   leaving 

the  "milk"    in   the  center;    the  embryo  is   comparatively   very    small, 

and    can     be    found,    of    course,    near    the   micropyle. 

12 10  A  seed,  then,  is  a  body  which  is  the 
direct  product  of  a  flower  and  a  result  of  a 
sexual  process,  and  which  contains  a  miniature 
plant  or  embryo;  and  its  office  is  to  produce  a 
new  plant.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  embryo  is 


94 


FIRST   LESSONS    WITH   PLANTS 


enclosed    in    seed -coats,   and    it    is   often    imbedded 
in  endosperm. 

SUGGESTIONS. — Only  the  most  obvious  parts  and  features  of 
seeds  have  been  mentioned  here,  but  these  characters  are  sufficient 
to  enable  the  pupil  to  make  profitable  comparisons  between  any 
seeds  which  may  come  to  his  hand.  It  is  good  practice  to  set 
beginners  searching  for  the  cotyledons  in  large  seeds.  Where,  for 
example,  are  the  cotyledons  in  the  pecan  (Fig.  94),  acorn,  maize, 


Showing  the  edible 

cotyledons  of 

pecan. 


wheat,  castor  bean,  sweet  pea,  apple,  peach,  morning-glory,  garden 
balsam,  cucumber,  orange,  canna,  cocoa-nut,  and  other  large  seeds  ? 
The  parts  can  generally  be  made  out  more  easily  if  the  seeds 
are  soaked  in  tepid  water  for  a  few  hours.  It  is  more  important, 
however,  if  facilities  are  at  hand,  to  set  the  pupil  to  the  study  of 
the  behavior  of  seeds  and  plantlets  in  germination.  An  interesting 
series  of  studies  can  be  made  from  a  comparison  of  the  form  of 
the  cotyledons  with  that  of  the  first  true  leaves,  and  of  the  grada- 
tion from  the  character  of  the  first  leaves  to  those  which  are 
characteristic  of  the  mature  plant.  Are  there  differences  in  coty- 
ledons and  first  leaves  between  the  different  horticultural  varieties 
of  the  same  plant.,  as  between  the  different  kinds  of  tomatoes. 


BULBS,  BULBLETS  AND  BUUS 


95 


XIX.  BULBS,  BULBLETS  AND  BUDS 

122.  We  have  now  found   that   plants  propagate 
themselves    by  both   sexual   and    sexless  means,  for 
seeds    are    the    product    of 

a    sexual    process,    whereas 
spores   are   not. 

123.  A      bulb     of       an 


FIG.  95. 
Section  showing  the  formation  of  the  bulbels. 


FIG.  96. 
Onion  bulbs. 


Easter    lily     is    shown    in    Fig.  95.     It   is    breaking 
up    into     several    parts;     and    the    gardener    knows 
that   each   of   these   parts  becomes  a  new   bulb. 
124.     If     we    cut    the     bulb,    we    find    a    main 


96 


FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


axis,  and  separate  bulbs  (or  bulbels)  are  forming  at 
a,  &,  c,  d.  Each  of  these  bulbels,  as  well  as  the 
mother -bulb,  is  seen  to  be  only  a  mass  of  thickened 

scales,  and  these  scales  are 
transformed  leaves.  A  bulb, 
then,  is  only  a  special  kind 
of  bud. 

125.     Onion 
bulbs  are  shown 
in  Fig.  96.    They 
are  of  a  different 
make-up      from 
the  lily  bulb,  for 
the    parts,    in- 
stead of  being 
narrow  and  over- 
lapping   longitu- 
dinally, are  thin 
plates  which  en- 
close the    interior   plates. 
That   is,    the   lily  bulb   is 
a  type  of    a    scaly  bulb, 
and    the   onion  of    a  laminate 
or  tunicated  bulb. 

125<7.  One  of  these  onions  has  a  very  thick  neck  or  stalk  and  a 
comparatively  small  bulb.  The  top  has  grown  at  the  expense  of  the 
bottom,  and  the  bulb  is  worthless  for  market.  Such  onions  are  known 
as  scullions. 


BULBS,  BULB  LETS  AND  BUDS  97 

126.  The  onion  produces  flowers  in  umbels. 
Fig.  97  is  a  bunch  of  "top  onions,"  in  which 
bulbs  (or  bulblets)  are 
borne  in  the  flower- 
cluster.  If  the  pupil 
examines  such  a 
cluster  he  may  find, 
as  in  this  picture, 
an  umbel  bearing 
flowers,  well -formed 
bulblets,  and  leaves 
springing  from  im- 
perfect or  scullion-  FIG.  98. 

like       bulblets  In  Rosette  and  offsets  of  house-leek. 

other  words,  flowers  have  been  tranformed  into  purely 
vegetative  parts. 

126a.  The  pupil  may  have  access  to  the  tiger  lily,  which  bears 
bulblets  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Top  onions  may  be  had  of  any 
seedsman. 

127.  If  bulbs  are  buds,  then  we  should  expect 
to  find  various  intermediate  forms.  The  house -leek 
(better  known  as  hen -and -chickens,  old -man -and 
woman)  produces  dense  rosettes  of  leaves  on  the 
ground  (Fig.  98).  This  rosette  is  structurally  a 
loose,  open -topped  bulb.  The  young  rosettes,  or 
offsets,  are  produced  upon  short  stems  from  the 
under  side  of  the  rosette,  rather  than  by  the 


98 


FIRST  LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS 


growth  of  interior  parts,  as  in  the  lily;  but  there 
are  some  true  bulbs  which  propagate  in  a  similar 
way. 

127a.  Let  the  pupil  examine  the  bulbs  of  the  dog's-tooth  violet 
or  "adder's -tongue,"— which  gladdens  the  copses  with  its  nodding 
bell-like  flowers  in  earliest  spring, —  for  a  method  of  propagation 
comparable  with  that  of  the  house -leek. 

128.  A  head  of  cabbage  is  cut  in  two  in  Fig. 
99.  It  is  made  up  of  overlapping  and  thick- 


FIG.  99. 

Section  of  cabbage. 

ened  leaves,  and  is  really  a  gigantic  bud.  There 
is  this  important  difference  between  the  cabbage 
and  a  lily  bulb  and  house -leek  rosette,  however, 
that  the  cabbage  bud  is  not  a  means  of  propa- 
gating the  plant,  and  one  head  or  bud  does  not 
give  rise  directly  to  another.  It  is  simply  a  store- 


BULBS,  BULB  LETS  AND   BUDS  99 

house ;  and  in  this  case,  the  bud  has  been  de- 
veloped by  man  through  the  process  of  continually 
selecting  for  seed  plants  which  have  the  densest 
or  most  coveted  buds  or  heads. 

129.  We  can  distinguish  bulbs  from  normal 
buds,  then,  by  saying  that  bulbs  directly  give  rise 
to  other  bulbs  which  produce  plants ;  and  these 
plants  may  produce  bulbs  directly,  or  may  bear 


FIG.  100.  FIG.  101. 

Winter  bud  of  anacharis.  Winter  bud  of  myriophyllum. 

seeds  which  produce  plants  which  produce  bulbs. 
Buds  give  rise  to  growing  shoots  which  may  pro- 
duce flowers  and  seeds,  and  these  seeds  produce 
plants  which  produce  buds.  We  cannot  carry  this 
distinction  far,  however,  because  bulbs  not  only 
produce  other  bulbs  by  lateral  growth,  but  at  the 
same  time  produce  a  growing  vertical  shoot  or 
axis;  and  we  shall  find,  also,  that  buds  may 
separate  from  the  parent  in  essentially  the  same 
way  that  the  bulblets  of  the  tiger  lily  do.  The 
point  is  that  plants  may  propagate  by  either  sex- 
ual or  asexual  means,  or  by  both  means. 


XOO  FIftST  L-ESSOJVS    WITH  PLANTS 

130,  If  one  were  to  pull  the  water -weeds  from 
the  drift  on  the  margins  of  lakes  and  ponds  in 
late  fall,  he  would  find  many  of  the  strands  with 
large  bud-like  bodies  at  the  ends  (Figs.  100,  101). 
These  buds  drop  to  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  and 
in  spring  vegetate  and  give  rise  to  new  plants. 

SUGGESTIONS.— Horticulturists  raise  onions  in  four  ways  :  by 
sowing  the  seed;  by  planting  bulblets  (Fig.  97);  by  "multipliers," 
which  are  bulbs  that  break  up  into  several  bulbs  during  the  pro- 
cess of  growth;  by  sets,  which  are  small  bulbs  that  have  been  pur- 
posely arrested  in  their  growth  the  previous  year  (by  sowing  seed 
in  dry  ground  and  allowing  the  plants  to  stand  very  close  together) 
and  which,  when  planted,  complete  their  growth  and  become  mer- 
chantable bulbs. 


XX.     HOW   SOME   PLANTS   GET   UP   IN 
THE   WORLD 


-.  The  hop  reaches  light  and  air  by  coiling 
around  some  support  (Fig.  102).  If  the  pupil 
has  access  to  a  hop  -field  (hops  often  grow  on  old 
fences)  or  to  the  Japanese  hop  of  gardens,  let  him 
observe  the  direction  in  which  the  stems  twine. 
He  will  find  the  tips  coiling  from  his  right  to  his 
left,  or  in  the  direction  of  the  sun's  movement. 

132.  The  morning-glory  (-Figr-103)  twines  in  the 
opposite  direction,  —  from  the  observer's  left  to 
right.  Fig.  104  is  ^  morning-glory  shoot  which 
was  taken  from  its  support,  and  the  free  end,— 
above  the  string,—  coiled  about  the  stake  in  the 


HOW  SOME  PLANTS    GET   UP  IN  THE    WORLD        101 


opposite  direction.  Two  hours  thereafter,  the  shoot 
had  uncoiled  itself  and  the  tipr  as  seen — in-— the 
picture,  was  again  resuming  its  natural  direction. 


FIG.  102. 


FIG.  103. 


FIG.  104. 


Japanese  hop, — with          Morning-glory,  — against       Morning-glory  refus- 
the  sun.  the  sun.  ing  to  twine  with 

the  sun. 


102  FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

We  shall  expect  to    find   that    most   kinds  of   twin- 
ing  plants   coil    in    only  one    direction. 

132«.     Plants   which    coil    with    the    sun,    or    from   the    observer's 
right  to  left,    are  known   as  sinistrorse   or   eutropic  ;    those  which   coil 


Tendril 
of  cucumber. 


against  the  sun,  or  left  to  right,  are  dextrorse  or  antitropic.     The  lat- 
ter direction  is  the  more  common. 

133.  Let    the    pupil    watch    the    free   end   of    a 
twiner,  —  as    on    a    young   plant   which   has    not    yet 
found    a    support,    or    a    long    tip    projecting   above 
atf  support —  an(l    take    note    of    the    position    or   di- 
rection   of   "the    tip    at    different   times    of    the    day. 
He   will  find   that   the    tip    revolves    in    a    plane,    as 
if   seeking   a    support. 

134.  The     cucumber     climbs    by  means    of    ten- 
drils  ~(Fig.   10§)~-      Notice  that  the  tendril  is  hooked, 
in   readiness    to    catch    a    support.       Does    the   point 
of   the  tendril  revolve?      Watch   it   closely;    or  draw 


HOW  SOME  PLANTS   GET   UP  IN  THE    WORLD        103 

a  mark   along  one    side   of     it,    from   base   to    tip, 
with    indelible    ink,     and    observe    if    the    line    be- 


PIG.  106. 
Tendrils  of  cassabanana,  a  melon-like  plant. 

comes   twisted,    or   it'    it   is    now   seen  on   the   con 
cave   side   of     the    tendril    and    then    on     the    con- 
vex side. 

-i3§-.  The  tendril  finally  strikes  a  support. 
What  then?  It  coils;  but  if  it  coils  much,  why 
does  it  not  twist  in  two,  since  both  base  and 
tip  are  fixed  ?  (jStudy  Fig.  106.  At  a  the  branches 
of  the  tendril  are  searching  for  a  support.  At  b 


104 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH   PLANTS 


two    of     ihe    branches     have    found     support,     and 
have     coiled    spirally,     thereby    drawing    the     plant 

near     the    support  ; 
ji|!(i,.     but       notice       that 
;•      there  are  places  in 
j;      each  where  one  coil 
is      missing.         At 
these   places,  the  di- 
rection   of     the    coil 
was   changed.       T 

&4   Airi 

middle  branch  "  failed 

to    find     a    support, 
and    has   twisted-  up 
into   a    querl  ,£     and    the   same    thing    has    occurred 

in   c.) 


FIG.  107 

Tendril  of   Boston 
ivy. 


Farmers'  boys  say  that  a  watermelon  is  ripe  when  the 
querl  is  dead  (which,  however,  may  not  be  true)  .  What  is  this 
querl  ? 

135&-.  The  tendrils  of  some  plants  are  provided  with  discs  at  the 
ends,  rather  than  hooks,  by  means  of  which  they  attach  to  a  support. 
Compare  the  common  Virginia  creeper  ;  also  the  root-like  tendrils  of 
the  Japanese  ampelopsis  or  Boston  ivy  (Fig.-1^7~).  Can  the  pupil  show 
that  the  tendril  in  Fig.  107.  is  stem,  not  root  ? 


clematis  is  shown  in  Fig.  108.  Here 
the  petiolule  of  the  terminal  leaflet  is  acting  as  a 
tendril,  although  all  of  the  petiolules  and  the  pet- 
iole have  the  same  habit.  Leaves,  then,  may  act 
both  as  tendrils  and  foliage. 


HOW  SOME  PLANTS   GET   UP  IN  THE    WORLD         105 


136a.  This  recalls  the  fact  that  there  are  various  disguises  of 
leaves.  Leaflets  may  be  represented  by  tendrils.  If  the  pupil 
will  study  the  position  of  tendrils  of  the  grape,  he  will  find  that 
they  occupy  the  places  of  flower-clusters.  (Has  he  not  seen  a 
bunch  of  grapes  with  one  or  two  ten- 
drils protruding?)  Let  him  determine 
the  morphology  of  the  tendrils  of  cu- 
cumbers and  melons.  Observe,  also, 
how  the  garden  nasturtium,  or  tropaeo- 
lurn,  climbs. 

137.  The  trumpet  creeper, 
poison    ivy,  true 

or    English   ivy, 

and    some  other 

plants,  climb 

by  roots 

which         attach 

themselves        to 

the          support. 

Observe    that    such    roots     prefer    to 

occupy    the    dark     places    or   chinks 

on     the     building     or     bark     upon 

which    they    climb. 

138.  Some  plants   are   mere   scramblers,  as   some 
tall     forms     of      blackberries,     the     galiums,     some 
of     the     smart -weed    tribe     or    polygonums.       Such 
plants    are    often    provided    with    various    hooks    or 
prickles    by  means    of     which    they  are    secured    to 
the    support    as    they   grow;    but    it    by   no    means 
follows    that    all    hooks    or   prickles    on   plants    serve 


106  FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

such  a  purpose,  or,  in  fact,  that  they  were  devel- 
oped primarily  as  a  means  of  enabling  the  plant 
to  climb. 

-  -SUGGESTIONS.  —  We  have  thus  seen  how  some  plants  are  able  to 
maintain  themselves  in  the  fierce  struggle  for  existence.  Let  the 
pupil  observe  if  climbing  plants  naturally  grow  with  other  and  tall 
plants,  or  do  they  frequent  places  of  less  competition  and  run  their 
chances  of  finding  support  on  other  things  than  growing  plants.  Does 
the  climbing  habit  impress  the  pupil  as  being  a  means  of  enabling  the 
X^lant  to  reach  light  and  air  ?  In  respect  to  the  methods  by  which 
plants  climb,  any  climber  will  afford  interesting  study,  but  the  teacher 
will  find  young  morning-glory,  pea,  pole  bean,  Japanese  hop,  cucum- 
ber, and  nasturtium  plants  to  be  easily  grown  from  seeds  and  useful 
in  demonstration.  Darwin's  "Movements  and  Habits  of  Climbing 
Plants  "  should  be  consulted.  . 


XXI.         VARIOUS    MOVEMENTS   OF    PLANTS 

139.  With  Fig.  26  we  studied  the  form  of  the 
leaf  of  bean,  but  there  is  more  to  be  seen  in 
the  picture.  The  leaf  at  the  left  was  drawn  in 
the  day-time,  that  at  the  right  in  the  night-time. 
There  are  similar  differences  in  the  positions  of 
leaflets  of  oxalis  (Figs.  109,  110)  or  wood  -sorrel. 
Observe,  also,  at  day  and  night,  the  leaves  of 
clovers,  lupines,  locusts  and  acacias.  In  other 
words,  the  leaflets  and  leaves  of  many  plants, 
notably  of  the  Leguminosae,  take  different  positions 
at  day  and  at  night.  The  leaves  of  some  plants 
close  up  during  very  hot  hours  of  the  day.  The 


VARIOUS  MOfEMEtfTS   OF  PLANTS 


107 


FIG.  109. 
Day  position  of   oxalis  leaflets. 


leaves    of    purslane,    and   even    of    Indian    corn    and 

grasses,     seem     to     wilt    or    to     roll    up    when    the 

weather   is    hot,    and 

loss    of     moisture    is 

thereby  prevented. 
140.   The  flower  of 

the   California  poppy, 

or  eschscholtzia,  which 

is  common  in   gardens, 

opens  at  day  and  closes 

at       night.        Observe, 

also,     the      flower      of 

"  pussley",   the    garden 

portulaca   or   rose-moss,    oxalis,    and    some     of     the 

mallows.      Other    flowers   open   at    night    and    close 

at  day.  This  diurnal  move- 
ment of  the  parts  of  plants 
is  known  as  the  "sleep  of 
plants." 


140a.  It  is  not  a  -sleep,  however,  in 
the  sense  of  being  a  rest  or  period  of 
recuperation  for  the  plant.  How  these 
movements  are  produced  is  not  definitely 
known,  but  they  are  associated  intimately 
with  the  stimuli  exerted  by  light  and 
darkness,  heat  and  cold.  The  utility  of 
the  movement  is  also  in  dispute.  Darwin 
found  that  the  position  of  sleeping  leaves 
at  night  is  such  as  to  conserve  the  vital 
heat  of  the  plant,  and  it  is  possible  that 
some  of  this  leaf-movement  has  arisen  as 


FIG.  110. 

Night  position  of  oxalis 
leaflets. 


108 


FIRST  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 


a     direct    means   of   adaptation    to    circumstances   or  as  a  protection 
to   the    plant;     but    in   the   present    state    of    our   knowledge,   this  is 


largely  assumption 


141.    The    flowers  of 
hepatica      have       been 
studied  in  Fig.  42  and 
64.       If,    however,   the 
artist  were  to  draw  the 
plant    at    night    or    in 
early  morning,  he  would 
make     a     picture     like 
Fig.    111.      The    entire 
flower  droops  by 
the    bending    of 
the     scape,    and 
it  straightens  up 
and    expands    in 
the        day-time. 
The      sleep       of 
plants,          then, 
may    be     more     than     a 
simple     closing     of      the 
flowers. 


14 la.  Is  it  common  for  early 
spring  flowers  to  close  or  to  droop 
at  night?  The  -pupil  may  now  be 
interested  to  explore  the  garden 
with  a  lantern . 


in 


is 


FIG.  111. 

Sleep  of  the 
hepatica. 

of    the    most     remarkable    movements 
that   of    the   leaf   and    leaflets   of    the 


VARIOUS  MOVEMENTS  OF  PLANTS  109 

sensitive  plant  (Fig.  112).  The  normal  position  of 
the  leaf  is  shown  at  the  right.  A  slight  touch 
or  shock  causes  the  petiole  to  drop  and  the  leaf- 
lets to  shut  up,  as  shown  on  the  left.  The  move- 
ments are  rapid  and  striking. 

142a.      The    sensitive    plant    (Mimosa    pudica)     is     easily    grown 
from    seeds,  which   may   be   obtained   of   seedsmen.     It   thrives   wher- 


FIG.  112 
The  curious  behavior  of  the  sensitive  plant. 

ever  beans  will  grow.  The  young  plants,  which  grow  rapidly,  are 
more  sensitive  than  old  ones.  The  sensitive  plant  is  one  of  the 
Leguminosae. 

143.  We  have  now  seen  movements  in  stamens 
(Fig.  61),  in  leaves,  the  opening  and  closing  of 
flowers,  the  shoots  of  twining  plants  and  of  ten- 
drils, the  fly -catchers  of  insectivorous  plants,  of 
stems  towards  light,  and  roots  towards  the  earth 
(Obs.  xvii.)  and  darkness  (137).  There  are  move- 
ments in  the  bursting  of  pods;  and  there  are 
other  movements  which  we  have  not  considered. 
Plants  are  not  as  fixed  and  as  unresponsive  to 
external  conditions  as  we  have  thought  them  to  be. 


V.     COLLECTING 


XXII.     THE    PRESERVING    OF    PLANTS 

144.  More     than     100,000     species    of      flowering 
plants   are    known,    and   it   is    probable    that    nearly 
as   many   more   await    discovery.     It    is   evident    that 
if    this  vast   number  of   facts  is   to   be  studied,  the 
facts   must   be   arranged    or  classified. 

145.  If   the   kinds  of   plants  are   to   be  carefully 
studied,  specimens  must   be   preserved.      The    plants 
of   an    entire    region  can   then    be    seen,   and,   what 
is  more   important,  they  can   be    seen  side    by   side, 
for  comparative  study  is    the  only  productive  method 
in   systematic   or   descriptive    botany. 

146.  The    plants   are    preserved    by  drying   them 
under    pressure.      These    dried    and    pressed    plants 
are     then    secured     to    sheets    of     large    white    stiff 
paper    (Fig.    113),    and    the    sheets    are    filed    away 
in  covers,  as  leaves  of   music  are  placed  in  a  port- 
folio.     The   covers   are    laid    flat    in   a   cupboard    or 
cabinet.     Such   a  collection  of    plants  is  an    herba- 
rium. 

147.  Although     the    specimens    shrink    some    in 
drying    and    flowers    often     lose    their    color,   these 

(110) 


THE   PRESERVING    OF  PLANTS 


111 


dried    plants    preserve    their    distinctive    characters 
remarkably    well.     It   is    from   such    specimens   that 


FIG.  113. 
An  herbarium  sheet. 


most   descriptions  of   plants  are    made ;    and   a   per- 
son who   proposes    a  new  species    always    preserves 


112  FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

a  specimen  of  it  as  a  record.  In  case  of  doubt 
as  to  what  the  species  is,  the  specimen,  rather 
than  the  description,  is  consulted. 

148.  A  label  (Fig.  114)  should  always  accom- 
pany the  specimen,  and  be  securely  glued  to  the 
sheet.  The  size,  form  and  style  of  label  are 


HERBARIUM     OF    G.    N.    LAUMAN. 


FIG.  114. 
An  herbarium  label. 

governed  by  the  wishes  of  the  maker  of  the  herba- 
rium ;  but  the  label  should  give  the  name  of  the 
plant,  where  and  when  collected,  and  any  inci- 
dental information,  as  to  soil,  location,  color  of 
flowers,  height  of  plant,  which  is  likely  to  be 
useful. 


THE  PRESERVING    OF  PLANTS 


113 


149.  The  collecting  of  the  plants  is  botanizing. 
The  first  requisite  is  a  tin  case  or  vasculum  (Fig. 
115),  in  which  the  plants  are  placed,  as  collected. 
The  specimens  are  pressed  when  the  collector 
arrives  home.  If  the  vasculum  closes  tight,  the 

specimens  will  remain  in 
good  condition  for  sev- 
eral hours.  If  they  wilt 
too  rapidly  they  may 
be  lightly  sprinkled  with 
water.  Upon  journeys 
or  long  tramps,  a  por- 
table press  is  sometimes 
used  (shown  in  Fig. 
115),  the  pressure  being 
applied  by  means  of 
straps.  The  most  im- 
portant point  to  be  con- 
sidered in  collecting 
plants  is  to  make  sure 
that  .the  specimen  is 
large  enough  and  good 
enough  to  fairly  repre- 
sent the  plant  from  which  it  is  taken.  A  good 
specimen  is  one  which  is  well  pressed  and  which 
comprises  leaves,  flowers  and  fruit ;  and  a  com- 
plete specimen  is  one  which  represents  every  part 
of  the  plant,  including  the  root. 


FIG.  115. 
Collecting  outfit. 


114  FIRST  LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

150.  It  is  important  to  remember  that  common 
plants  are  most  useful  for  study,  and  several  speci- 
mens should  be  taken,  representing  different  soils 
and  conditions.  If  one  begins  with  the  thought 
of  securing  only  the  rare,  curious  or  beautiful 
things,  he  will  probably  have  an  herbarium  which  is 
of  no  particular  value.  He  will  have  only  a  col- 
lection of  detached  plants.  Some  theme  or  mo- 
tive should  run  through  a  collection, — to  exhibit 
the  flora  of  a  neighborhood  or  a  roadside,  to 
illustrate  the  plants  of  a  forest  or  a  garden,  to 
show  the  effects  of  different  environments,  and 
the  like. 

150a.  In  collecting  plants,  always  set  out  with  the  ambition  to 
make  good  specimens.  Collect  samples  of  all  parts  of  the  plant, — 
lower  and  upper  leaves,  stem,  flowers,  fruit,  and,  wherever  practi- 
cable, roots.  In  small  species,  those  two  feet  high  or  less,  the 
whole  plant  should  be  taken.  Of  larger  plants,  take  portions  about 
a  foot  long.  Press  the  plants  between  papers  or  "driers."  These 
driers  may  be  any  thick  porous  paper,  as  blotting-paper  or  carpet- 
paper,  or,  for  plants  that  are  not  succulent  or  very  juicy,  news- 
papers in  several  thicknesses  may  be  used.  It  is  best  to  place 
the  specimens  in  sheets  of  thin  paper — grocer's  tea-paper  is  good 
— and  place  these  sheets  between  the  driers.  Many  specimens  can 
be  placed  in  a  pile.  On  top  of  the  pile  place  a  short  board  and 
a  weight  of  thirty  or  forty  pounds,  or  a  lighter  weight  if  the  pile 
is  small  and  the  plants  are  soft.  Change  the  driers  every  day. 
The  plants  are  dry  when  they  become  brittle,  and  when  no  mois- 
ture can  be  felt  by  the  fingers.  Some  plants  will  dry  in  two  or 
three  days,  while  others  require  as  many  weeks.  If  the  pressing 
is  properly  done,  the  specimens  will  come  out  smooth  and  flat, 
and  the  leaves  will  usually  be  green,  although  some '  plants  always 
turn  black  in  drying, 


THE   PRESERVING    OF  PLANTS  115 

1506.  Specimens  are  usually  mounted  on  single  sheets  of  white 
paper  of  the  stiffness  of  very  heavy  writing-paper  or  thin  Bristol- 
board.  The  standard  size  of  sheet  is  11%  x  16%  inches.  The  plants 
may  be  pasted  down  permanently  and  entirely  to  the  sheet,  or  they 
may  be  held  on  by  strips  of  gummed  paper  (as  in  Fig.  436).  In  the 
former  case,  Dennison's  fish-glue  is  a  good  material  to  use.-  Only 
one  species  or  variety  should  be  placed  on  a  sheet.  Specimens 
which  are  taller  than  the  length  of  a  sheet  should  be  doubled  over 
when  they  are  pressed.  The  species  of  a  genus  are  collected  into 
a  genus  cover.  This  cover  is  a  folded  sheet  of  heavy  manila  or 
other  firm  paper,  and  the  standard  size,  when  folded,  is  12  x  16% 
inches.  On  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  this  cover  the  name  of 
the  genus  is  written.  The  specimens  are  now  ready  to  be  filed 
away.  If  insects  attack  the  specimens,  they  may  be  destroyed  by 
fumes  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  (which  is  very  inflammable)  or  chloro- 
form. In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  specimens  in  a 
tight  box  and  then  insert  the  liquid.  Lumps  of  camphor  placed 
in  the  cabinet  are  useful  in  keeping  away  insects.  Those  who 
wish  detailed  information  on  the  collecting  of  plants  should  con- 
sult W.  W.  Bailey's  "Botanical  Collector's  Handbook."  For 
methods  of  making  leaf  prints  and  of  preserving  flowers  in  nat- 
ural colors  (and  of  collecting  and  preserving  insects),  consult 
Chap.  XV.  of  Bailey's  "Horticulturist's  Rule-Book,"  4th  edition. 

.150c.  The  naming  of  the  specimens  must  be  accomplished  with 
the  aid  of  some  manual  of  the  plants  of  the  region.  There  are 
several  books  to  aid  in  this  work;  but  the  teacher  should  bear  in 
mind  the  important  fact  that  the  name  of  a  plant  is  less  impor- 
tant than  the  plant  itself,  and  effort  should  not  be  expended  in  this 
direction  at  the  expense  of  the  study  of  the  specimens.  By  mak- 
ing herbaria  of  the  various  forms  of  common  species  of  plants, 
much  of  the  labor  of  mere  identification  is  avoided.  The  name  of 
a  plant  serves  two  purposes:  it  affords  language  which  we  can  use 
in  speaking  or  writing  of  the  plant,  and  it  serves  as  an  index 
to  whatever  may  have  been  written  about  the  plant. 

150f(.  The  standard  systematic  work  upon  the  plants  of  North 
America  is  Gray's  "Synoptical  Flora,"  which,  however,  is  not  yet 
completed.  For  that  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  north  of  Tennessee,  and  practically  including  adjacent 
Canada,  Gray's  "Manual,"  now  in  its  sixth  edition,  is  the  standard 


116  FIJttiT  LESSONS    WITH  PLANTS 

authority.  Britton  and  Brown's  new  "Illustrated  Flora,"  in  three 
volumes  and  with  an  illustration  of  every  species,  covers  essentially 
the  same  territory  as  the  manual,  with  the  addition  of  the  British 
Possessions  as  far  north  as  Newfoundland.  Macoun's  "Catalogue  of 
Canadian  Plants,"  in  several  parts,  and  published  by  the  Geologi- 
cal and  Natural  History  Survey  of  Canada,  may  be  consulted  for 
the  British  Possessions.  For  the  southern  states  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, the  third  edition  of  Chapman's  "Flora  of  the  Southern 
States "  is  the  standard  reference.  For  the  territory  west  of  the 
Mississippi  there  is  no  single  manual.  The  floras  covering  parts  of 
this  region  are:  Coulter's  "  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Region,"  and  "Flora  of  Western  Texas,"  the  latter  pub- 
lished by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  Greene's 
"Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Region  of  San  Francisco  Bay,"  for 
central  California;  Howell's  "Flora  of  Northwest  America,"  for 
Oregon,  Washington  and  Idaho.  For  the  common  wild  and  culti- 
vated plants  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  the 
revision  of  Gray's  "Field,  Forest  and  Garden  Botany"  should  be 
consulted.  Books  of  a  more  popular  nature  may  often  be  used  by 
teacher  or  pupils,  as  Mrs.  Dana's  "How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flow- 
ers," Mathews'  "Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden,"  W.  W. 
Bailey's  "Among  Rhode  Island  Wild  Flowers,"  Baldwin's  "Orchids 
of  New  England,"  Newhall's  books  upon  "Trees,"  "Shrubs,"  and 
"Vines,"  Knobel's  Guides  ("Trees  and  Shrubs,"  "Ferns  and  Ever- 
greens" of  New  England),  and  others.  There  are  many  excellent 
local  floras,  —  books  devoted  to  the  plants  of  a  state,  county,  or 
small  circumscribed  geographical  area.  Other  systematic  books  arb 
mentioned  in  "Lessons  with  Plants." 

SUGGESTIONS.  The  collecting  of  natural  objects  is  one  of  the  de- 
lights of  youth.  Its  interest  lies  not  only  in  the  securing  of  the  objects 
themselves,  but  it  appeals  to  the  desire  for  adventure  and  exploration. 
Botanizing  should  be  encouraged;  yet  there  are  cautions  to  be  observed. 
The  herbarium  should  be  a  means,  not  an  end.  To  have  collected  and 
mounted  a  hundred  plants  is  no  merit;  but  to  have  collected  ten  plants 
which  represent  some  theme  or  problem  is  eminently  useful.  Schools 
usually  require  that  the  pupils  make  an  herbarium  of  a  given  number  of 
specimens,  but  this  is  scarcely  worth  the  effort.  Let  the  teacher  set  each 
collector  a  problem.  One  pupil  may  make  an  herbarium  representing  all 
the  plants  of  a  given  swale,  or  fence-row,  or  garden;  another  may  en- 


THE  PRESERVING  OF  PLANTS 


117 


deavor  to  show  all  the  forms  or  variations  of  the  dandelion,  pigweed, 
apple  tree,  timothy,  or  red  clover;  another  may  collect  all  the  plants  on 
his  father's  farm,  or  all  the  weeds  in  a  given  field;  another  may  present 
an  herbarium  showing  all  the  forest  trees  or  all  the  kinds  of  fruit  trees  of 
the  neighborhood;  and  so  on.  The  collector  should  be  asked  to  display 
his  herbarium  to  the  school,  explaining  the  problem  in  hand;  and  the 
teacher  and  others  may  then  criticise  the  making  of  the  specimens.  The 
teacher  should  discourage  the  collection  of  plants  simply  because  they 
are  rare;  and  an  effort  should  be  made  to  preserve  in  their  natural 
locations  the  interesting  and  showy  wild  flowers,  rather  than  to 
destroy  them  by  over- zealous  collecting. 


FIG.  116. 
The  botanist's  resort  on  a  rainy  day, 


The  Best  and  Newest 
Rural  Books 


BOOKS  ON  LEADING  TOPICS 
CONNECTED  WITH  AGRI- 
CULTURAL AND  RURAL 
LIFE  ARE  HERE  MENTIONED. 
EACH  BOOK  IS  THE  WORK 
OF  A  SPECIALIST,  UNDER  THE 
EDITORIAL  SUPERVISION  OF 
PROFESSOR  L.  H.  BAILEY,  OF 
THE  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY, 
OR  BY  PROFESSOR  BAILEY 
HIMSELF,  AND  IS  READABLE, 
CLEAR-CUT  AND  PRACTICAL. 


THE   RURAL  SCIENCE   SERIES 

Includes  books  which  state  the  underlying  principles 
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The  following  volumes  are  now  ready: 

THE  SOIL.  By  F.  H.  KING,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  303  pp.  45 
illustrations.  75  cents. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND.  By  T.  P.  ROBERTS,  of  Cornell  Univer- 
sity. 421  pp.  45  illustrations.  $1.25. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS.  By  E.  G.  LODEMAN,  late  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. 399  pp.  92  illustrations.  $1.00. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.  By  H.  H.  WING,  of  Cornell  University. 
311  pp.  43  illustrations.  $1.00. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUIT-GROWING.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY.  516  pp. 
120  illustrations.  $1.25. 

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and  Mechanic  Arts.  537  pp.  113  illustrations.  $1.50. 

FERTILIZERS.  By  E.  B.  VOORHEES,  of  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station. 
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THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.  By  L.  H.  BAILED  300  pp.  92 
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IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.  By  F.  H.  KING,  University  of  Wisconsin. 
502  pp.  163  illustrations.  $1.50. 

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THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 
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THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  BREEDING.     By  W.  H.  BREWER,  of  Yale 

University. 
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ment  of  Agriculture. 
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PLANT-BREEDING.    By  L.  H.  BAILKY.    293pp.    20  illustrations.    $1.00 
THE  FORCING-BOOK.     By  L.  H.  BAILKY.    266  pp.    88  illustrations.    $1.00. 
GARDEN-MAKING.     By  L.  H.  BAILKY.    417pp.    256  illustrations.    $1.00. 
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THE  PRACTICAL  GARDEN-BOOK.    By  C.  E.  HUNN  and  L.  H.  BAILKY. 
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WORKS    BY  PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

'HE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE: 

A  Collection  of  Evolution  Essays  Suggested 
by  the  Study  of  Domestic  Plants.    By  L.  H. 

BAILEY,    Professor  of    Horticulture   in   the  Cornell 
University. 

FOURTH  EDITION— BIB  PACES  —  22  ILLUSTRATIONS   » 2. OO 

To  those  interested  in  the  underlying  philosophy 
of  plant  life,  this  volume,  written  in  a  most  enter- 
taining style,  and  fully  illustrated,  will  prove  wel- 
come. It  treats  of  the  modification  of  plants  under 
cultivation  upon  the  evolution  theory,  and  its  atti- 
tude on  this  interesting  subject  is  characterized 
by  the  author's  well-known  originality  and  inde- 
pendence of  thought.  Incidentally,  there  is  stated 
much  that  will  be  valuable  and  suggestive  to  the 
working  horticulturist,  as  well  as  to  the  man  or 
woman  impelled  by  a  love  of  nature  to  horticul- 
tural pursuits.  It  may  well  be  called,  indeed,  a 
philosophy  of  horticulture,  in  which  all  interested 
may  find  inspiration  and  instruction. 

THE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE  comprises  thirty  essays  touching 
upon  The  General  Fact  and  Philosophy  of  Evolution  (The  Plant 
Individual,  Experimental  Evolution,  Coxey's  Army  and  the  Russian 
Thistle,  Recent  Progress,  etc.);  Expounding  the  Fact  and  Causes  of 
Variation  (The  Supposed  Correlations  of  Quality  in  Fruits,  Natural 
History  of  Synonyms,  Reflective  Impressions,  Relation  of  Seed- 
bearing  to  Cultivation,  Variation  after  Birth,  Relation  between 
American  arid  Eastern  Asian  Fruits,  Horticultural  Geography,  Prob- 
lems of  Climate  and  Plants,  American  Fruits,  Acclimatization,  Sex 
in  Fruits,  Novelties,  Promising  Varieties,  etc. ) ;  and  Tracing  the 
Evolution  of  Particular  Types  of  Plants  (the  Cultivated  Strawberry, 
Battle  of  the  Plums,  Grapes,  Progress  of  the  Carnation.  P«tunia, 
The  Garden  Tomato,  etc.)' 


T 


WORKS    BY   PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

HE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NA* 

TIVE     FRUITS.      By    L.    H.    BAILEY,    Pro. 
fessor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell  University. 

47*    PAGES— ItS     ILLUSTRATIONS  — $2.00 


In  this  entertaining  volume,  the  origin  and  de 
velopment  of  the  fruits  peculiar  to  North  America 
are  inquired  into,  and  the  personality  of  those  horti- 
cultural pioneers  whose  almost  forgotten  labors 
have  given  us  our  most  valuable  fruits  is  touched 
upon.  There  has  been  careful  research  into  the 
history  of  the  various  fruits,  including  inspection 
of  the  records  of  th'e  great  European  botanists  who 
have  given  attention  to  American  economic  botany. 
The  conclusions  reached,  the  information  presented, 
and  the  suggestions  as  to  future  developments,  can- 
not but  be  valuable  to  any  thoughtful  fruit-grower, 
while  the  terse  style  of  the  author  is  at  its  best  in 
his  treatment  of  the  subject. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OP  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS  discusses  The  Rise  of 
the  American  Grape  (North  America  a  Natural  Vineland,  Attempts 
to  Cultivate  the  European  Grape,  The  Experiments  of  the  Dufours, 
The  Branch  of  Promise,  John  Adlum  and  the  Catawba,  Rise  of 
Commercial  Viticulture,  Why  Did  the  Early  Vine  Experiments  Fail  ? 
Synopsis  of  the  American  Grapes) ;  The  Strange  History  of  the  Mul- 
berries (The  Early  Silk  Industry,  The  "Multicaulis  Craze,") ;  Evolu- 
tion of  American  Plums  and  Cherries  (Native  Plums  in  General, 
The  Chickasaw,  Hortulana,  Marianna  and  Beach  Plum  Groups, 
Pacific  Coast  Plum,  Various  Other  Types  of  Plums,  Natvve  Cherries, 
Dwarf  Cherry  Group );  Native  Apples  (Indigenous  Species,  Amelio- 
ration has  begun);  Origin  of  American  Raspberry-growing  (Early 
American  History,  Present  Types,  Outlying  Types) ;  Evolution  of 
Blackberry  and  Dewberry  Culture  (The  High-bush  Blackberry  and 
Its  Kin,  The  Dewberries,  Botanical  Names);  Various  Types  of 
Berry-like  Fruits  (The  Gooseberry,  Native  Currants,  Juneberry, 
Buffalo  Berry,  Elderberry,  High-bush  Cranberry,  Cranberry,  Straw- 
berry); Various  Types  of  Tree  Fruits  (Persimmon,  Custard-Apple 
Tribe,  Thorn-Apples,  Nut-Fruits) ;  General  Remarks  on  the  Improve 
ment  of  our  Native  Fruits  (What  Has  Been  Done,  What  Probably 
Should  Be  Done). 


WORKS    BY   PROFESSO*    BAILEY 

ESSONS  WITH  PLANTS:  Sugges- 
tions for  Seeing  and  Interpreting  Some  of 
the  Common  Forms  of  Vegetation.  By  L. 
H.  BAILEY,  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell 
University,  with  delineations  from  nature  by  W.  S. 
HOLDSWORTH,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Michigan. 

SECOND  EDITION- 481    PACES-446  ILLUSTRATION*      I  Z  MO— 
cLOVH— »1.10  NET 

There  are  two  ways  of  looking  at  nature.  The 
old  way,  which  you  have  found  so  unsatisfactory, 
was  to  classify  everything — to  consider  leaves,  roots, 
and  whole  plants  as  formal  herbarium  specimens, 
forgetting  that  each  had  its  own  story  of  growth 
and  development,  struggle  and  success,  to  tell. 
Nothing  stifles  a  natural  love  for  plants  more  effect- 
ually than  that  old  way. 

The  new  way  is  to  watch  the  life  of  every  grow- 
ing thing,  to  look  upon  each  plant  as  a  living 
creature,  whose  life  is  a  story  as  fascinating  as  the 
story  of  any  favorite  hero.  "Lessons  with  Plants" 
is  a  book  of  stories,  or  rather,  a  book  of  plays,  for 
we  can  see  each  chapter  acted  out  if  we  take  the 
trouble  to  look  at  the  actors. 

"  I  have  spent  some  time  in  most  delightful  examination  of  it,  and  the 
longer  I  look,  the  better  I  like  it.  I  find  it  not  only  full  of  interest,  but 
eminently  suggestive.  I  know  of  no  book  which  begins  to  do  so  much  to 
open  the  eyes  of  the  student —whether  pupil  or  teacher  — to  the  wealth  of 
meaning  contained  in  simple  plant  forms.  Above  all  else,  it  seems  to  be 
full  of  suggestions  that  help  one  to  learn  the  language  of  plants,  so  they 
may  talk  to  him."—  DABWIN  L.  BARDWELL,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Bing- 
hamton. 

"It  is  an  admirable  book,  and  cannot  fail  both  to  awaken  interest  in 
the  subject,  and  to  serve  as  a  helpful  and  reliable  guide  to  young  students 
of  plant  life.  It  will,  I  think,  fill  an  important  place  in  secondary  schools, 
and  conies  at  an  opportune  time,  when  helps  of  this  kind  are  needed  and 
eagerly  sought."— Professor  V.  M.  SPALDINO,  University  of  Michigan. 

FIRST    LESSONS   WITH    PLANTS 

An  Abridgement  of  the  above.  117  pages — 116  illustra- 
tions— 40  cents  net, 


B 


WORKS    BY   PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

OTANY :  An  Elementary  Text  for  Schools. 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

355    PACES— «00    ILLUSTRATIONS— 91 .10   NET 


"This  book  is  made  for  the  pupil:  'Lessons  With  Plants* 
was  made  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  teacher."  This  is  the 
opening  sentence  of  the  preface,  showing  that  the  book  is  a 
companion  to  "Lessons  With  Plants,"  which  has  now  become  a 
standard  teacher's  book.  The  present  book  is  the  handsomest 
elementary  botanical  text-book  yet  made.  The  illustrations 
illustrate.  They  are  artistic.  The  old  formal  and  unnatural 
Botany  is  being  rapidly  outgrown.  The  book  disparages  mere 
laboratory  work  of  the  old  kind:  the  pupil  is  taught  to  see  things 
as  they  grow  and  behave.  The  pupil  who  goes  through  this  book 
will  understand  the  meaning  of  the  plants  which  he  sees  day 
by  day.  It  is  a  revolt  from  the  dry-as-dust  teaching  of  botany. 
It  cares  little  for  science  for  science'  sake,  but  its  point  of  view 
is  nature-study  in  its  best  sense.  The  book  is  divided  into  four 
parts,  any  or  all  of  which  may  be  used  in  the  school:  the  plant 
itself;  the  plant  in  its  environment;  histology,  or  the  minute 
structure  of  plants;  the  kinds  of  plants  (with  a  key,  and  de- 
scriptions of  300  common  species).  The  introduction  contains 
advice  to  teachers.  The  book  is  brand  new  from  start  to 
finish. 

"An  exceedingly  attractive  text-box. \.n— Educational  Review. 
"It  is  a  school  book  of  the  modern  methods." — The  Dial. 

"It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  better  manual  for  schools  or  for  indi- 
vidual use."— The  Outlook. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


WORKS    BY    PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

1HE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN 
HORTICULTURE  :   By  L.  H.  BAILEY,  of 

Cornell  University,  assisted  by  WILHELM  MILLER, 
and  many  expert  cultivators  and  botanists. 

4VOLS.— OVER    2800     ORIGINAL   ENGRAVINGS -CLOTH  — OCTAVO 
920.00   NET    PER    SET.      HALF    MOROCCO,   S32.OO   NET   PER   SET 

This  great  work  comprises  directions  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  horticultural  crops  and  original  descrip- 
tions of  all  the  species  of  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers 
and  ornamental  plants  known  to  be  in  the  market  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  "It  has  the  unique 
distinction  of  presenting  for  the  first  time,  in  a  care- 
fully arranged  and  perfectly  accessible  form,  the  best 
knowledge  of  the  best  specialists  in  America  upon 
gardening,  fruit-growing,  vegetable  culture,  forestry, 
and  the  like,  as  well  as  exact  botanical  information. 
.  .  .  The  contributors  are  eminent  cultivators  or 
specialists,  and  the  arrangement  is  very  systematic, 
clear  and  convenient  for  ready  reference." 

"We  have  here  a  work  which  every  ambitious  gardener  will  wish  to  place 
on  his  shelf  beside  his  Nicholson  and  his  London,  and  for  such  users  of  it  a 
too  advanced  nomenclature  would  have  been  confusing  to  the  last  degree. 
With  the  safe  names  here  given,  there  is  little  liability  to  serious  perplexity. 
There  is  a  growing  impatience  with  much  of  the  controversy  concerning 
revision  of  names  of  organisms,  whether  of  plants  or  animals.  Those  in- 
vestigators who  are  busied  with  the  ecological  aspects  of  organisms,  and 
also  those  who  are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  application  of  plants  to  the 
arts  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  so  on,  care  for  the  names  of  organisms 
under  examination  only  so  far  as  these  aid  in  recognition  and  identification. 
To  introduce  unnecessary  confusion  is  a  serious  blunder.  Professor  Bailey 
has  avoided  the  risk  of  confusion.  In  short,  in  range,  treatment  and  edit- 
ing, the  Cyclopedia  appears  to  be  emphatically  useful ;  .  .  .  a  work  worthy 
of  ranking  by  the  side  of  the  Century  Dictionary."— The  Nation. 

This  work  is  sold  only  by  subscription,  and  terms  and 
further  information  may  be  had  of  the  publishers. 


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